Warren Hastings: Model Short Answers with Video Display

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Warren Hastings 15 Model Short Answers

Best of 30 short notes - Plassey and Buxar.

 Best of 30 short notes

Plassey and Buxar.

1. Where was the headquarters of the British East India Company established first? At which place was the headquarters of the British transferred afterwards?

Ans: The British East India Company was established first in Surat and then moved to Bombay.

2. In which year did the English raise their factory in the Kingdom of Golkonda? 

Ans: In 1611, the English raised their factory at Masulipatnam in the Kingdom of Golkonda.

3. Where did the British found the city of Madras And built Fort St George

Ans: The English bought some land on the East Coast and founded the city of Madras, where they built Port St George, named after the patron saint of England

4. Name three important settlements of the English in Bengal around 16150.

Ans: In 1615, the three important English settlements in Bengal were at Hooghly, Kasimbazar and Balasore, with subordinate factories at Patna, Rajmahal and Deccan

5. Name three centres of English which developed into main commercial centres

Ans: Bombay, Madras and Calcutta were the Main commercial centres

6. List four goods that were exported from India to England by the British

Ans: The British exported indigo opium, spices and sugar from India to England

7. In 1717, the Mughal Emperor granted the British the right to carry on her seaborne trade duty-free in Bengal?

Ans: in 1717. The Mughal Emperor Faruk Siyar, who had been cured of a disease by William Hamilton, a doctor in the company’s service, granted a Firman to the company to carry on her sea bond rate duty-free in Bengal in lieu of an annual payment of Rs. 3000.

8. Write the three Firmans granted by the Mughal Emperor Farooq Seyar in 1717 to the East India Company

Ans: The three Firmans were granted by Farukh Sayar in 1717 To the East India Company.

1. One of the critical concessions was that the company was allowed to carry on her sea bond trade duty-free in Bengal in lieu of an annual payment of rupees 3000

2. At Surat, the company's annual tax was fixed at rupees 10,000, and customs duties were remitted.

Finally, the English company's currency was allowed to circulate throughout the Mughal Empire. They were also permitted to purchase from the local zamindars, the Talakudari, in 38 villages adjacent to Calcutta.

9. Which were the two leading factories of the French, and where and when were these established? Mention the factories established after 1725.

Ans: The French had two leading factories: Pondicherry or Puducherry and Chandarnagar or Chandor Nagar. Pondicherry's factory was established in 1674, and Chandar Nagar's in 1690. After 1725, two more factories were set up in Mahi and Calicut.

10. Who was Siraj-ud-dula

Ans: Siraj-ud-dula was the grandson of Aliwardi Khan. He became the Nawab of Bengal in 1756. On June 23, 1757, the historic battle of Plassey was fought between the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-dula, and the English East India Company, in which the English came out victorious.

11. Who was Shaukat Jung

Ans: Shaukat Jung was the Nawab of Purnia and a cousin of Saraj-ud-dula. His maternal aunt, Gasseti Begum, tried to enthrone Shaukat Jang as the Nawab of Bengal. But Siraj-ud-dula managed to ascend to the power of Bengal, arousing their jealousy and enmity.

12. Who was Mir Jaffer

Ans: Mir Jaffer was Bakshi under Nawab Ali Wardi Khan and later became the first Nawab of Bengal with British support after the Battle of Plassey. He conspired with the British under Robert Clive to dispose of Siraj-ud-dula to become the Nawab himself. Mir Jaffer’s Army betrayed Siraj-ud-dula by not fighting for him. Siraj-ud-dula was defeated and killed. Mir Jaffer ascended as the new Nawab of Bihar, Odisha, and Bengal. Mir Jaffer conflicted with the East India Company over too many demands raised on him by the British East India Company and tried to tie up with the Dutch East India Company. The British eventually overran the Dutch force at Chinsurah, replacing Mir Jaffer with Mir Qasim

13. Who was Mir Qasim? Mir Qasim was the Nawab of Bengal from 1760 to 1763.

 Ans: Mir Qasim was installed as Nawab with the support of the British East India Company, replacing Mir Jaffer, his father-in-law. Later, Mir Qasim fell out with the British and fought them at the Battle of Boxer.

14. Write four causes that led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757. 

Ans:  the four causes that led to the Battle of Lassie in 1757 Were 

1. British help to the rival claimants of Nawab Siraj-ud-dula

2. Misuse of Royal Permit and Dustakhat by the English

3. capture of Kasim Bazaar and Calcutta in 1756 by Nawab Siraj-ud-dula.

4. black hole tragedy.

5. The English gave protection to Krishna Das, a wealthy merchant of Bengal.

15. When and where was the Battle of Plassey fought, and between whom?

Ans:  the Battle of Plassey was fought on June 23. 1757 at a mango groove, 22 miles South of Murshidabad. It was fought between Nawab Siraj-ud-dula of Bengal and the British East India Company.

16. Name the person who, before the battle of Plassey in 1757, Conspired with the English against Nawab Siraj-ud-dula.

Ans:  the person who, before the Battle of 1757, Conspired with the English against Nawab Siraj-ud-dula of Bengal were:

1. Mir Jafar Mir Bakshi of the Nawab Siraj-ud-dula

2. Manik Chand, The officer in charge of Calcutta.

3 Jagat Seth, the biggest banker of Bengal.

17. Write four causes that led to the defeat of Nawab Siraj-ud-dula in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 at the hands of the English.

Ans: the four causes that led to the defeat of Nawab Siraj-ud-dula in the Battle of Plassey 1757 at the hands of the English were

1. Corrupt and treacherous officers of Nawab Siraj-ud-dula like Bakshi Mir Jafar and Manakchand.

3 Nawab Siraj-ud-dula was no match for Clive, a man of Dauntless Courage, perseverance, and foresight, a great military strategist who had accomplished brilliant military feats. 

4 Nawab Siraj-ud-dula was beaten by the English because he had no efficient intelligence system to obtain information about the company’s activities that were against his interests.

18. What does the black hole tragedy refer to

Ans: the so-called black hole tragedy refers to the alleged imprisonment of 123 Englishmen in a small room, resulting in the death of most of them. It was reported by Holwell, who was ambitious about Becoming the governor of Bengal Factory.

19. Give four results of the battle of Plassey 1757. Why is it said that the Battle of Plasi was little more than a cannonade?

Answer. 1. Mir Jaffer was made the Nawab of Bengal, who gave the British East India Company, Zamindari, rights to a tract of land near Calcutta called the 24 Parganas. This marked the beginning of the British Dominion in India. 

2. Mir Jaffer made enormous payments to the company as compensation. The Army and naval officers of the company were also paid vast amounts of money as bribes or rewards for the services they had done to him

3. A marvellous transformation in the position of the British from mere traders. The English became virtual Masters of Bengal and, subsequently, the whole of India.

4. it paved the way for the English victory at Buxar in 1764. They also defeated the French and Dutch companies and thus virtually monopolised the trade and commerce of Bengal

The Battle of 1757 was little more than a cannonade because of the conspiracy that the majority of the Nawabs Siraj-ud-dula Army, led by the traitors Bakshi Meer Jafar and Rai Durlabram, took no part in the fighting.

20. Who became the Nawab of Bengal in 1760. which places were given to Britishers by him.

Ans: Mir Qasim became the Nawab of Bengal in 1760. He gave Burdwan Medinapur and Chittagong to the Britishers.

21. Mention four causes that led to the Battle of Baxter in 1764.

Ans: The four causes that led to the Battle of Buxar on October 23, 1764, are

1. Imperialist designs of the East India Company of Britain

2. The conflict for supremacy between Mir Qasim and the English

3. Inland trading equality allowed to Bengal traders by Mira Kasim caused resentment and indignation in the company

4. Exploitation and unfair advantage taken by the English traders and their Gumashtas (Indian Agents working for the English traders).

22. Name the parties between whom the Battle of Baxter 7064 was fought and who came out victorious.

Ans: The Battle of Buxar 1764 was fought between the English East India Company On the one hand, and the combined forces of Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal, Suja-ud-dula, the Nawab of Awadh and Shah Alam II, the Mughal Emperor, on the other hand in the battle for power in the Battle of Buxar 1764. The English came out victorious under the leadership of Major Hector Munro.

23. List the four results of the Battle of Buxar1764.

Ans: The four results of the Battle of Buxar 1764 were

1. Mir Qasim, who had been dethroned, was replaced by Mir Jafar as Nawab of Bengal. His Army was reduced, and he was to keep a British resident at his court.

2. The British maintained Awadh as a friendly buffer between Bengal and northwest India.

3. Mir Jafar had to pay for the losses the English suffered during the war. 

4. The grant of Diwani of Bengal provided the English with enormous resources and helped lay the foundation for British rule in India.

24. List four provisions of the Treaty of Allahabad. 1765.

Ans: The provisions of the Treaty of Allahabad concluded between Robert Clive and the governor of Bengal, Shuja-ud-dula Nawab of Avadh, Shah Alam II, the Mughal Sultan of Delhi, are as under

1. The province of Awadh was returned to Nawab Shuja-ud-dula. However, two districts, Kada and Allahabad, were taken from them.

2. The English were permitted to carry on trade free in Awadh.

3 Shah Alam II, the Mughal Emperor, granted the English the right to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. This is known as the grant of the Diwani.

4. Nawab Shuja-ud-dula had to keep English troops to protect his frontiers and their expenses.

25. Who were the parties in the Treaty of Allahabad, 1765, concluded?

Ans: The Treaty of Allahabad, 1765, was concluded between Robert Clive, the Nawab of Bengal and Nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-dula and Shah Alam II, the Mughal Sultan.

26. What was the significance of the Battle of Buxar in 1764?

Ans: The Battle of Buxar in 1764 dealt a final blow to the three princely powers involved, Bengal, Awadh, and the Mughal Sultanate, and established the supremacy of the British power in India.

27. Why was Mir Qasim dethroned from the post of Nawab of Bengal by the English before the Battle of Buxar1764? 

Ans: Mir Qasim refused to act as per the fancy of the British and proved inconvenient to them. So he was finally dethroned. Mir Jaffer was restored to the throne.

28. In return for the Diwani of Bengal, what did the English agree to pay to the Mughal Empire? 

Ans: In return for the Diwani of Bengal, the British agreed to give the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam Sagin an annual pension of Rs 26 lakhs and the districts of Allahabad and Kada.

29. Write the four main centres of Portuguese in India.

Ans: The four main Portuguese centres in India were Daman Salmatt, Bassein and Goa.

30. Name the first Portuguese Viceroy in India and who succeeded him.

Ans: During the tenure of Francisco Almeida, the Portuguese Viceroy, the whole Indian sea-born trade passed into the hands of the Portuguese, which proved very lucrative. Francisco Almeida was succeeded by Albuquerque, who proved to be the ablest Portuguese Viceroy in India and aimed to destroy the Muslim traders to establish a Portuguese Empire in the east.

Queen’s Proclamation 1858 in Hindi with Video

 

ब्रिटेन की महारानी की घोषणा 1858

भारत सरकार का कानून 1858  - गवर्नमेंट ऑफ इंडिया ऐक्ट अगस्त ।858 में पारित किया गया। भारत का शासन महारानी की घोषणा द्वारा भारत का राज अपने अधिकार में कर लिया गया। यह घोषणा 1858 कानून के  एक प्रावधान को पूरा करने के लिए महारानी द्वारा जारी की गई। यह घोषणा नवंबर एक, 1858 को की गई। उस दिन से भारत पर ब्रिटिश महारानी का राज्य शुरू हुआ।

 

महारानी की घोषणा की शब्दावली महारानी विक्टोरिया के निरीक्षण में लिखाई गयी थी। इस घोषणा को लॉर्ड कैनिंग  ने इलाहाबाद दरबार में एकत्रित भारतीय राजाओं और जनता के समक्ष पढ़ा था।

 

महारानी की घोषणा के निम्नलिखित बिंदु थे।

एक.           ब्रिटिश महारानी ने संकल्प लिया कि भारत के भूखंड का प्रशासन वे अपने अधिकार क्षेत्र में लेती है, जिसे तब तक उनके लिए वे शासन ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी चार्टर के कानून के आधीन चलाती आ रही थी।

 

दो.               महारानी ने भारत की प्रजा को आह्वान किया कि भारतीय प्रजा उनके शासन के प्रति वफादार रहेगी एवं उसकी उत्तराधिकारियों के प्रति अपनी श्रद्धा बनाए रखेगी।

 

 

तीन.           ब्रिटिश महारानी ने विस्काउंट कैनिंग को भारत क्षेत्र का अपना पहला वायसराय नियुक्त किया जो उनके लिए भारत पर गवर्नर जनरल की पदवी पर शासन करेगा।

 

चार.            महारानी ने ही इस इंडिया कंपनी के सभी अधिकारियों एवं सेना को अपने शासन की नौकरी में पक्का कर लिया।

 

 

पाँच.           इंग्लैंड की महारानी भारतीय राजाओं और ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी के मध्य की गई सभी संधियों एवं व्यवस्था को स्वीकार करना एवं उनकी शर्तों को पूर्ण रूप से निभाने का विश्वास दिलाया।

 

छः.              इंग्लैंड की महारानी ने घोषणा की की भारत में क्षेत्र विस्तार की नीति को नहीं अपनाएगी। इसी के साथ ही भारत पर अपने अधिकारों का पूरी सुरक्षा करेगी और दूसरों के अधिकारों का भी हनन नहीं होने देगी।

 

 

सात.         इंग्लैंड की महारानी ने घोषणा की कि वह किसी भी तरह अपने धार्मिक विश्वास को भारतीयों पर कभी नहीं रोपेंगी और ना ही थोपेगी। इसी के साथ वह भारतीय प्रजा की धार्मिक आस्थाओं में कोई हस्तक्षेप नहीं करेगी।

 

आठ.         इंग्लैंड की महारानी ने घोषणा की कि वह भारतीय राज्यों के समान गौरव एवं अधिकारों का पूर्ण आदर करेंगी  एवं निभाएगी।

 

 

नौ.              भारतीय प्रजा के प्रत्येक व्यक्ति के साथ एक सम्मान एवं पूर्ण न्याय होगा।

 

दस.           भारतीय प्रजा के प्रत्येक व्यक्ति को बिना किसी नस्ल, आस्था एवं विश्वास के भेदभाव  से प्रशासनिक सेवाओं में प्रवेश प्राप्त करने का अवसर दिया जाएगा।

 

 

ग्यारह.     कानून के लेखन, निर्माण एवं लागू करते समय भारतीय आस्था, अधिकारों एवं रीतियों को ध्यान में रखा जाएगा।

 

बारह.       इंग्लैंड की महारानी ने 1857 की घटना पर खेद व्यक्त किया और उन में भाग लेने वाली प्रजा को आम माफी की घोषणा की। 1857 की घटना में संलिप्त सभी अधिकारियों को क्षमा दी गई। परंतु जिन्होंने अंग्रेजों की हत्या की थी उन्हें इस क्षमा के घेरे से बाहर रखा गया। इस संबंध में लॉर्ड कैनिंग   की नरम नीति का समर्थन किया गया।

 

तेरह.         अंत में महारानी विक्टोरिया ने घोषणा की कि उनका प्रशासन भारतीय उद्योग, उन्नति एवं शांति के लिए कार्यरत रहेगा एवं प्रशासन सामान्य कल्याण एवं विकास की नीति अपनाएगा।

Charter Act 1793

 By the Act of 1767, the British Parliament allowed the Company the privilege to retain territorial possession in India. The continuation of the Company was decided in the Regulating Act 1773, wherein it was allowed to exist for the next twenty years. Before the period expired, the Directors of the Company had applied for the renewal of the Charter. The Parliament granted it the Charter for the next twenty years. It was the first in the series of Charters by the Parliament, which the Parliament had continued to renew till 1853. The British Parliament maintained the institution of the Board of Control, which directed, superintend, and controlled the workings of the Company. On every renewal, the Parliament increased its grip over the operation of the Company and simultaneously reduced its privileges and rights. From the Charter Act 1793, a series of Charters sustained the Company till 1858. 

 

The Circumstances Leading to Enactment of the Charter of 1793.

 

Act of 1786

The British Parliament was dominated by such Political personalities of Britain who were friends of Lord Cornwallis. The loss of American Colonies weighed heavily on the minds of Lord Cornwallis and his friends in the British Parliament. Lord Cornwallis was one of the generals who had surrendered to the American Revolutionaries. Therefore, on his return, his friends tried to give Lord Cornwallis a position of respectability and good pay. It was suggested that he be posted in India as Commander in Chief of Indian forces. The Commander in Chief was also a Council of the Governor-General in Council member. Lord Cornwallis was not ready to join after studying the workings of the government of India. He asked for more power and a better say in the administration. In the Act of 1786, Lord Cornwallis was appointed as the Commander in Chief. The Commander in Chief was given the power to override the Council on his responsibility. In addition to that, Lord Cornwallis was also made the Governo-General in Council. He was empowered to override the decisions of his Council. It was made possible because William Pitt the Younger was influential in the Parliament, and he favoured Lord Cornwallis. 

 

Declaratory Act of 1788

Henry Dundas was the first President of the Board of Control. He was a friend of William Pitt the Younger. He continued as the President for a long time. However, the style of working and the attitude of Henry Dundas while dealing with the Company brought him into conflict with the Directors of the Company. Henry Dundas deputed four Royal Regiments to India and paid the expenses out of the Indian Revenue. The Court of Directors objected to the billing. The Parliament responded by passing the Declaratory Act of 1788. The 1788 Act transferred the full power and supremacy to the Board of Control. The Act also stipulated that the Directors should place the Company's annual account before the Parliament. The provisions were also added to settle the gratuity and the salaries. The Act transferred the power of the Company to the Ministry of the Crown.  

 

The Directors of the Company applied for the renewal:

The Directors of the Company sought the renewal of the Charters before the tenure of twenty years came to a close by 1793. The power of the Company was gradually being withdrawn from it by statutes like the Declaratory Act of 1788. However, the Company was still secure in the monopoly of Indian trade. The monopoly of trade with India held enough attraction to maintain the Company. 

 

Support of Ministers to the Company:

Many Ministers in the Crown had a direct interest in the existence of the Company. They had patronised the Company.

 

Favourable Circumstances:

When the Company's expiry date approached, Britain got involved in a war with France, and the country's attention was entirely diverted to that war. In the meantime, the Company's application for a licence renewal was brought before the Parliament. Some merchants petitioned the Parliament to end the monopoly of trade granted to the Company. However, many ministers patronised the Company. The Bill for a new Charter was quietly passed in the Parliament. The features of the Charter Act are given below. 

 

Main Provisions of the Charter Act 1793:

 

Provision 1.

The Company's trade monopoly was extended for twenty years. The private individuals were allowed to trade to the extent of 3000 tons of shipping. 

 

Provision 2.

The members of the Board of Control and its staff were to be paid from India's revenues.

 

Provision 3.

The Governor Generals and the Governors of the Presidencies were empowered to override the majority in their Councils. This power was already given to Governor-General Cornwallis in 1788 in the Declaratory Act. The number of members in each Council was restricted to three.

 

Provision 4.

The Governor-General in Council was given full power and authority to superintend, direct, and control the Presidency Governments. When the Governor-General visited other Presidencies, a provision empowered him to supersede the Governor there. 

 

Provision 5.

The Governor-General was empowered to depute one of the members of his Council as the Vice-President of the Council. The Vice-President was to act for the Governor-General when the latter was on tour to other Presidencies.

 

Provision 6.

The Governor-General, the Governors, the Commander-in-Chief, and some other officers were not permitted to leave India while they held office. This provision continued even when the Company was abolished. 

 

Provision 7.

The Commander-in-Chief was removed from the Council of the Governor-General's membership. He was eligible to become a member of the Court of Directors, which deputed him to the Council. 

 

 

Provision 8.

The Charter reiterated the policy of non-intervention, no further conquests, and no further extension of the territories in India. It was declared the British nation's wish, honour, and policy. This policy was inaugurated by the Pitts India Act of 1784 and again reiterated in the Charter Act of 1793. 

 

Provision 9.

The provision ruled that accepting gifts and presents by British subjects holding any office or employment under the Royal Majesty or the Company was unlawful. It was declared an act of extortion and a misdemeanour at law. 

 

Provision 10.

The Civil Service rule adopted the principles of grading ranks and seniority in service. Promotion to a higher post was made based on length of service. Only Covenant servants of the Company were to be given positions with pay over £500 a year. 

 

Provision 11.

The sale of liquor was made subject to the grant of a licence by the Governor-General, who was empowered to levy a sanitary tax in the Presidency towns. 

 

Provision 12.

The Supreme Court of Calcutta's jurisdiction was extended to the high seas and given admiralty jurisdiction.

 

Provision 13.

The Governor-General was given the power to appoint the members of Civil Services as Justices of Peace. 

 

Provision 14.

The Company's finances were also regulated. Under a provision of the Act, a particular amount was assumed to be the Company's annual surplus. Five lakh pounds were allocated from that assumed fund to pay the Company's debts. A part of that fund was made available to raise the dividend from 8 per cent to 10 per cent.

 

Criticism and Significance of the Charter Act 1793.

 

1. Fresh Charters after every 20 years

It was the first in a series of Charter Acts. Three more Charter Acts followed, which continued the Company's existence until it was abolished by the Good Government of India Act in 1858. The Regulating Act gave the Company a patent for twenty years. It introduced Parliament's measure to establish control over the workings of the Company under the direction and supervision of the State. Parliament passed the Charter Act of 1793 exclusively to give patents to companies. 

 

2. Provisions of the 1784 Act reiterated

The Charter Act 1793 reiterated the principles and policies defined in Pitt's India Act 1784. The Act stipulated that the Company would not follow the policy of territorial expansion. However, it remained merely high-sounding morals on paper. The Governo-Generals like Lord Cornwallis, Lord Wellesley, Lord Hastings and others expanded the territorial limits. The Directors of the Company were also against it. However, the Governors-General benefited from the distance from London, the underdeveloped mode of communication, which was time-consuming, and the more protracted processes of decision-making on the part of the Board of Control and Court of Directors. 

 

3. Strengthened the Control of Parliament over the Company

The Charter Act 1793 consolidated the provisions of the Regulating Act 1773 and the Pitt's India Act 1784. It provided more details about the rules already established by earlier statutes. The powers of the Governor-General were defined, and he was made more powerful. 

 

4. Exploitation of Indian Wealth increased

The Charter Act of 1793 increased the expenditure of the Indian Government. The salaries of the Board of Control were derived from India's revenue. India suffered from regular famines. The economic condition of India was deteriorating in the territories which had come under the rule of the Governor-General. The expenditure on the Indian revenue continued for too long. It was finally curbed by the Government of India Act of 1919.

 

5. The Post of Governor-General in Council consolidated

No significant changes were made in the government of India. However, the Governor-General's power was increased. He was empowered to make appointments to the post of Justice of Peace, given the power to levy taxes, and authorised to issue liquor licences. 

 

6. Parliament’s dominance over revenue and territory of British India administration

The Act brought finance and accounts under the purview of Parliament. The annual account was now placed before the Parliament. The Parliament assumed that the Company earned a surplus every year. It issued directions to the Company to make specific payments. The Company's financial independence was taken away. However, the Company was allowed a monopoly of trade. 

 

 

The Charter Act of 1793 was a consolidating measure. It laid out the high-sounding principle of non-aggression. However, the governor-general did not follow that policy. The Company continued to expand its territorial limits. Before the Charter Act of 1813, it had brought under its sway a significant part of Indian territory.  

Balban - Model Answer

  

Balban

Gayasudin Balban belonged to the Albary tribe of Turks. His father was Sardar of 10,000 families. He was captured by invading Mongols and sold to a merchant at Basra. According to Minhaj-ud-Siraj, Balban persuaded Aibbak to buy him From the Basra merchant. Aibbak was not interested in buying him because of his shortness and ugliness. By his ability, he succeeded in getting promoted to a higher post. He was in the good books of Razia Sultan. However, when the revolt took place against Razia Sultan, he sided with the party of Behram. In return, he received the Jagirs of Rewari and Hansi. During the tenure of Masood, Balban resisted the invasion of Mongols on the territory of Lahore. During the tenure of Naseeruddin, which started in 1246, Balban was appointed Prime Minister because of his proven wisdom and sharpness of mind. He continued on the post with one interval for 20 years. Balban served Naseeruddin with complete devotion.

Balban - as the prime minister of Naseeruddin.

Balban proved to be a very successful Prime Minister. He faced some significant difficulties as a Prime Minister of Naseeruddin. The people of India had lost respect for the Turkish government after the death of Iltutmish because of disorder, injustice, uncertainty and confusion that prevailed. Balban's first major problem was restoring the people's faith in the state's administration. For this, he adopted the policy of firm resolution. Apart from that, he had to face some more intricate problems. They were as follows. 

1. Revolt of Hindu and Rajput rulers of Mewat

2. Revolt of Rajput rulers in Malwa 

3. Conspiracy of scheming Muslims

 4 Revolt of Muslim governors.

 5. Regular invasion of Mongols in regular intervals. 

1. Suppression of Hindu revolts.

After the death of Iltutmish and the removal of Razia Sultana by orthodox religious groups with the support of the group of Forties (Chaliya or Chalisa), Beharam and Masood could not maintain control over the state over the newly acquired territory in India. There were revolts against the government's policies. Still, Balban, as a Prime Minister to Sultan Nassirudin Mahmud and later as a sultan, suppressed those revolts with courage and a firm hand. In 1246, the Kokhars of the river Chenab and Jhelum Doab were defeated. Similarly, Hindu Rajas of the Doab, the territory between Yamuna and Ganga, were defeated. After that, Gwalior Mandu, Chanderi and Malwa were re-conquered. Balban brought the Rajputana under the control of the Delhi administration.

2. Suppression of Mewati.

 The Hindu rulers of the Mewat region in the south of Delhi from Ghaggar to Yamuna had resisted the rule of the Turkish regime. The people of the region fought the control of Muslim rulers in Delhi and were not ready to accept them. The directive of the Delhi Sultanate was openly challenged and disrupted law and order in the area. In 1248, Balban deployed an army against Mewati. In 1259, Balban led the strong military, and within 20 days, he could crush 12,000 Mewati Hindu leaders. He also acquired 21,00,000 Tankas from the vanquished Hindu Sardar in this expedition. 

3. Suppression of scheming Muslim Officers.

After the death of Iltutmish, Turkish Sardars became powerful. They were as popular as Chalia, a group of 40. Balban was also part of that group. The 40 Sardars changed the monarchs as per their whims. When Balban became the prime minister of Naseeruddin, the Chalia tried to turn Sultan Nassirudin against Balban, and Balban was removed as the Prime Minister. Balban returned to his Jagirs of Rewari and Hansi. But when he left, the situation at Delhi Sultanate Court became more difficult. The author of the Tabkat-i-Nasiri, Minhaj-ud-Shiraj has placed in his record that the disorder was of such an order that Muslims could not say their regular namaz in the mosque. In such circumstances, Nassiruddin was compelled to call Balban back as the prime minister, putting Balban on a firmer footing. 

4. The pressure of the rebellious governor.

In 1255, the Governor of Awadh, Qutulugh Khan, and the Governor of Sindh, Kishlu Khan, joined and revolted against the centre at Delhi. Balban suppressed their revolt with solid hands. 

5. Checked the Mongol's regular intrusions. 

After the return of Changez Khan, Mongol intruders later continue to revisit Punjab to re-loot the area. To check these intrusions and revolts, Balban built new forts, repaired the older ones, and deputed strong and committed Officers to defend the area. He was very successful in checking the intrusion of Mongols in Punjab. 

Balban as a Sultan.

1. Policy towards Mewat, Malwa and Muslim Governors conspirators

 Balban became the Sultan in 1266. Sultan Balban ensured that the Hindus of Mewat region, Hindu rulers of Kattiar, later known as Rohilkhand, Rajput of Guwahati, Ranthambore, and Chanderi remained subdued. Similarly, he did not allow any Muslim Noble to organise any conspiracy against the centre. 

2. Successful Mongol Policy

In the case of Mongols, he reinforced his fort management along the Punjab borders. The territories of Multan, Samana, Dipalpur, etc, were declared as the borders of Punjab or frontier provinces. More forts were built on the northwest Frontier. Balban manufactured more weapons. Balban was fortunate to find among their cousins and relatives who were devoted and effective generals. Sher Khan and Malik Mubarak were commissioned to defend the northwest Frontier.

Similarly, his two sons proved highly effective in defending the northwest Frontier and established their name as successful military commandants. They were Bughra Khan and Mohammed. After adopting such strict measures by 1279, when the Mongols returned, Bughra Khan from Samana and Malik Mubarak from Delhi reinforced their forces on the North West Frontier and helped Prince Mohammed defeat the Mongols. However, in 1285, Prince Mohammed was killed in another Mongol invasion under their commander Tamar. Prince Mohammed was very dear to Balban, and it affected Balban's morale. Balban did not allow this personal setback to reflect on his empirical duties. Even then, on the whole, Balban was able to push back the Mongols, and he succeeded in his policy. Because of his Mongol policy, Balban could not spread his territories towards the South and East of Delhi. However, when his firm policy against the Mongols proved successful, he started new expeditions in other parts of India. 

3. The Bengal revolt

Bengal Province had always remained an intricate problem for the Delhi sultanate because of the great distance. Balban was among the first Muslim rulers who found a way to control Bengal from a distance. In 1279, Balban reinstated his control over the governor of Bengal. However, the Governor of Bengal stopped the payment of the annual tribute after a lapse of time, believing that the Sultan had become old and, because of the distance, Bengal could afford to defy the dictates of Delhi. Balban sent his Governor, Aamir Khan, to chastise Tughril Beg of Bengal, but Tughril Beg defeated Aamir Khan. In the second expedition, Tughril Beg was again successful. It troubled the Sultan and made him angry and anxious. In the third expedition, he headed the army, defeated Tughril Beg, and killed him. He adopted a policy of cruelty against the relatives and friends of Tughril Beg in the bazaar of Lakhnauti. They were murdered mercilessly. People watched the cruelty of the Sultan with dismay and horror, and the Sultan made it a point to convey a message that the Delhi Sultanate's rule could not be taken lightly. It was as per his Iron and Blood policy, which he had adopted. Historian Barani pointed out that the cruelty displayed at Lakhanauti was never heard of in the Delhi empire. After the revolt in Bengal was suppressed, Balban deputed his son Bhughra Khan as the governor of Bengal. Bughra Khan was so terrified by his father's cruelty that he never thought of revolting against the Delhi Kingdom and did not even dare to reach Delhi in the presence of Balban, even when he was called to Delhi so he could be installed as the successor of Balban. 

4. Balban administration

Balban is remembered in history as a good administrator. When he took over the reins of power, first as a Prime Minister of Nassiruddin Mahmud and later as the Sultan, the area suffered from confusion and disorder. People had lost faith in the government's credibility and did not respect the government's whip. In his accounts, Barani, the contemporary historian, observed that fear of the administration had departed. There was unrest against the Turkish rule in Delhi. Therefore, there were two significant problems before Balban when he took over as a sultan.

The first problem was reinstating the prestige of the government. 

The second problem was ensuring the security of people's lives and property. 

4a. New Imperial Policy of Blood and Iron

Balban adopted a blood and iron policy to restore the Delhi Sultanate's rule. To achieve this, the Sultan raised a strong army. Balban maintained a strong cavalry and Infantry. Cavalry and Infantry were placed under the command of experienced and capable maliks. The appointment to the post of commandments was based on merit only. Only such soldiers who were bold, courageous, and loyal to the Sultan were given preference. They were able to achieve good results for the Balban. 

4b. An Efficient Spy system.

Balban organised a very efficient spy system. The spies strictly watched the workings of nobles, ministers, and governors. They were highly disciplined and professional people. They kept watch on every person, even the members of royal families of high status like Bughra Khan. 

4c1. Dignified Court.

As a part of the blood and iron policy, Balban established a magnificent court wherein strict practices and protocols were made the order of the day. Balban knew that a magnificent court left an effective impression on the people who approached the Sultan and infused awe, fear, and mesmerising influence in their hearts for the Sultan. Therefore, Balban organised his court on the model of Persian courts. The court was decorated to make an impact on the observers who got the chance to attend it. All those who visited Balban were asked to bow before the Sultan and his throne. 

4c2. The decoration and magnification.

Balban established a highly decorative and magnificent court designed on the pattern of Persian courts. There were fixed protocols in the presence of the Sultan occupying the throne. The Court environment was very successful in leaving a sober impact on the minds of the visitors. Balban always attended his court in an impressive style. He did not mix with his officers in court and maintained a tranquil and dignified presence while attending to the tasks of the empire. He also discontinued his earlier habits of taking wine and watching dances, leaving an impression of austerity on the courtesan and visitors.

4d. The rule of justice was enforced.

 Balban was a stern ruler. No governor or relative dared to violate his orders and rules, which he established. In every sphere, he issued his orders and established rules. At the same time, implementing those regulations and orders, he tried to do justice to everyone who followed his orders and regulations. No relative or friend was allowed to take any privileges by going against the orders and regulations of Balban. There are many examples wherein the highly dignified nobles went against his rules and orders and were appropriately punished without bias or prejudice. No distinction was made between poor or rich, high or low. Barani, the historian of his times, wrote about Balban's sense of justice in glorious terms.

4e. Dealing with Turkish Nobles - Chalia.

After the reign of Iltutmish, Turkish nobles gained much power. It had become difficult to deal with them, especially with the group of 40s - Chalia. It was necessary to weaken those nobles to establish a peaceful and orderly atmosphere in the country. Balban had, therefore, to take stern measures to accomplish the arduous task. The Jagirs of old Amirs and Maliks were confiscated and allotted pensions instead of jagirs. The Young Sardars continued to hold their title to Jagir's, but their surplus wealth was seized.

Similarly, widows of many old Jagirdars were also deprived of their Jagirs but were granted pensions instead of Jagirs. These nobles were subjected to strict watch so they would not associate and mix to hatch any plot against the Sultan. Balban curtailed the power of the group of 40 by making stern rules. 

5. Balban's blood and iron policy.

 Balban's blood and iron policy was based on a strong army, a strict rule of law, and an efficient spy system. It even adopted the policy of cruelty against the rebellions. An elaborate court with stringent practices and an approach towards running the administration with non-emotional and display of control on the state working were the essence of his Blood and Iron Policy.

 

Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate Empire by Iltutmish

Iltutmish was a Turk of the Albary tribe. He was a slave of a Bukhara (a city in present-day Uzbekistan) Merchant. He was beautiful to look at and impressive in his abilities and intelligence. Qutubu-din Aibak was attracted to his abilities and looks and bought him from the Bokhara merchant. Soon, Iltutmish rose in Aibak's esteem and was promoted to a higher post. A historian has observed that he was unequalled in beauty, virtue, intelligence, and nobleness of character.

Iltutmish had won Muhammad Gauri's and Qutubu-din Aibak's appreciation as he proved his loyalty to both. Qutubu-din Aibak married his daughter to him. Aibak appointed Iltutmish as the Governor of Guwahati. On the death of Qutubu-din Aibak, his son, Azam Shah, sat on the throne. However, the ministers and nobles replaced Azam Shah on the throne with Iltutmish in 1211.

 

Conquests and main events of the reign of Iltutmish.

The accession of Iltutmish to the throne with the full support of the leading nobles and ministers did not secure his position. He faced some significant difficulties.

Firstly, the leading nobles, referred to as Maliks, also in the good books of Qutubu-din Aibak, aspired to acquire the throne.

Secondly, according to Muslim law, Iltutmish was declared an enslaved person and, as a result, was unqualified to become a king.

Thirdly, some more influential Turkish nobles like Tajuddin Yuldoz in Ghazni, Nasiruddin Qabacha in Sindh and Khiljis of Bengal revolted against him. They were strong contenders for the throne. It was the achievement of Iltutmish that he faced all the opposition with courage.

With courage and boldness, he finally established his claim on the throne. To achieve it, he adopted the following policy.

1.   Suppression of Maliks.

It was a significant achievement that Iltutmish suppressed the revolts of the principal chiefs of Qutbudin Aibbak. They were addressed as Maliks, and Iltutmish gradually removed them from the court and his territory.

2.   Defeat of Yaldoz of Gazni.

Tajudin Yaldoz in Gazni was a strong contender and opponent of Iltutmish at Delhi. Tajudin Yaldoz was a slave of Muhammad Gauri, just like Qutubu-din Aibak. After the death of Muhammad Gauri in 1206, Yaldoz became more successful than others and established his rule at Ghazni. After that, he gave Qutub-din Aibak, who ruled from Lahore, a tough time. Yaldoz was a brave and able ruler. In short, he had the upper hand over Qutubu-din Aibbak and Iltutmish. In 1214, Yaldoz defeated Qabacha of Sindh and acquired control over Punjab. Iltutmish courageously faced the army of Yaldoz in Punjab. In 1215, on the battlegrounds of Terrain, Iltutmish was able to give a crushing defeat to Yaldoz. Iltutmish captured Yaldoz and killed him. It was a significant success for Iltutmish as it laid the grounds for consolidating his Empire.

3.   Nasurudin Qabacha of Sindh was defeated.

Nusiruddin Qabacha in Sindh, another leading power since the times of Gauri, ruled as an independent power on Multan and Uch. He had not accepted Iltutmish as a ruler of Punjab. Iltutmish also feared the existence of Nasiruddin Qabacha because the Muslim population could revolt against him under the leadership of Qabacha of Sindh. Iltutmish declared war against Qabacha in 1217. Iltutmish succeeded in removing Qabacha from Punjab, But Naseeruddin Qabacha continued to rule as an independent ruler in Sindh. In 1227, Iltutmish marched against him for the second time and conquered Uch. Qabacha fled to the safety of Bhakkar. Iltutmish besieged Qabacha at his place of shelter, from where Qabacha escaped but drowned in the River Indus. The danger of Qabacha ended for Iltutmish.

4.   Established rule of Delhi over Bengal

On the death of Qutubudin Aibak, the Khilji family in Bengal declared its independence from Lahore. Gradually, Ali Mardan became the ruler of Bengal. Ali Mardan died in 1212 and was succeeded by Abbas, who acquired the title of Gyasudin and declared himself independent in Bengal. It created another danger for the prestige of Iltutmish as a ruler of Muslim rule in India. In 1220, Gyasudin accepted the recognition of Iltutmish as the king of Delhi when Iltutmish sent an army against him. However, soon after, Gyasudin ended his allegiance to Delhi, and it became a challenge to the existence of Iltutmish. Iltutmish deputed his son, Nasiruddin, to punish Gyasudhin in Bengal. Gyasudhin was killed in battle, and the rule over Bengal was brought under the control of Delhi. Iltutmish's strategy was to remain camped in Delhi to consolidate his rule. Iltutmish avoided marching outside Delhi during the period. After some years, another revolt took place again. Iltutmish marched in command of an army this time and reoccupied Bengal. Thus, his rule was consolidated in Delhi.

5.   Other Conquests of Iltutmish - Malwa

After suppressing the Muslim opponents, Iltutmish directed his attention to the Indian rulers, which he had intentionally avoided earlier. His strategy was to consolidate his rule over Delhi and protect the frontiers of Punjab. Iltutmish occupied Gwalior in 1231. The ruler was Mangal Dev. He had established his independence during the short tenure of Shah Azam Shah. The ruler of Gwalior, Mangal Deva, gave tough resistance to Iltutmish. It took 11 months for Iltutmish to end the rule of Mangal Dev and occupy the territory of Gwalior. The second significant victory was in Malwa. The capital of Malwa, since the Guptan rule, was Ujjain. He attacked Malwa and destroyed Mahakali Temple after conquering Ujjain. He directed his attention to Ranthambore and Mandu. He occupied Ranthambore and Mandu before he died in 1235.

6.   Invasion of Changiz Khan in 1221. A crucial danger that Iltutmish managed with diplomacy:

In 1212, Changaz Khan, whose original name was Tamuzin, arrived on the frontiers of India for the first time. Changaz Khan was a Mongol who had won Mongolia, North China and Turkistan. He also occupied Khawarizm. In Khawarizm, which Jalaluddin ruled over. Jalaluddin escaped his country and reached Afghanistan. Changaz Khan followed Jalaluddin of Khawazarizm and conquered Afghanistan, Herat and Peshawar at this juncture. Jalaluddin of Khawarizm sought help from Iltatmush. Itutmish politely refused help and asked him not to enter the territory beyond the Indus as the climate was unfit for his contingent. In the meantime, Changaz Khan defeated Jalaluddin of Khawarizm on the banks of the river Indus. However, Changez Khan did not cross the river Indus to enter India because of the climate, which was not conducive for his contingent and moved towards the western part, leading him to the Middle East. In this manner, Iltutmish was able to save his territory from the invasion of Changez Khan. Lanepoole, a European historian who wrote Islamic history while living in the Middle East, remarked Changez Khan was a new incalculable danger that threatened all of Asia. The tumult was tremendous, but the storm passed away as quietly as it came.

7.   Investiture by the Khalifa of Baghdad in 1228

Khalifa of Baghdad recognised the Iltutmish as the Muslim ruler in India. It was crucial and politically important for Iltutmish to receive recognition from Khalifa of Baghdad. It helped Iltutmish to end the Muslim revolt against his dominion in India. He became an authorised ruler of Muslim dominion in India.

8. Iltutmish introduced a new currency

Iltutmish introduced new gold and silver coins. It differed from the famous silver and gold coins that Hindu rulers issued. The gold and silver coins had inscriptions in Arabic on them. Iltutmish was the first to introduce purely Arabic coins.

9.   Delhi, the capital of the Empire and naming of Delhi Sultanate

Before the death of Qutbudin-Aibak, Lahore was the capital of new Muslim rule in India. To safeguard his territory, Iltutmish shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi to seek better protection for his territory. While so, Iltutmish made Delhi the center of new Muslim rule in India. Therefore, he is also called the founder of the Delhi Sultanate.

 

Before his death, Iltutmish appointed his daughter Razia Begum as his successor. It was a revolutionary step from Muslim political arrangements. Iltutmish is credited with establishing the Delhi Sultanate and consolidating the rule of Muslims in India.