Reformation (Descriptive and Refresher Type) for B. A. III

Reformation

Question II-2-3: What do you understand by the term Reformation? What were the shortcomings of the Church, which led to the Reformation?
Or
Examine the role of Martin Luther in the rise and progress of Reformation in Germany.
Or
What do you understand from Reformation? What were its causes and main objectives.
Or
What do you understand from the Reformation Movement? What were its effects on the political and social life of Europe?
Or
What do you understand by the Reformation? Throw light on its aims and causes. What were its effects?

Answer: - The Reformation movement was the most important movement after the Renaissance in the history of Modern period. This movement in fact was a reaction against the Pope and the church, which took place in the European countries in the sixteenth century. It was a religious revolution of sixteenth century, which culminated in the separation of many nations of Europe from the Church of Rome."

The Main Aims of Reformation:
The main aims of this movement are discussed briefly as follows: -

1. 
   To put a check on the unlimited powers and the ecclesiastic supremacy of the Pope and the high class priests (bishops, cardinals, and monks).
2. 
   To reform the moral life of priests.
3. 
   To end corruption rampant in the churches and make the priestly class to redirect their attention back to the aims of spiritualism.
4. 
   To lay emphasis on the establishment of the National Church.
5. 
   To help the common man to develop and have faith in God for salvation and to end their dependence on the Pope.
6. 
   To give the right of religious freedom to every person.

It can be added here that apart from the above mentioned aims, the movement was originally aimed at ending the superstitions of ancient times for which efforts were being made since the thirteenth century.


CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION


There was not one single cause for the emergence of the religious Reform Movement. The overwhelming support of virtually the whole of European people is a proof that there were numerous factors which were at the root cause of the rise of Religious Reformation. Such unanimity among so many people and the unity among them for the support of the reform could never be easily possible. The factors, which played role in the rise and the progress of the Reformation Movement were multiple and are discussed in detail as under:

(1). Evils of Church: - By the beginning of the sixteenth century, the institution of church were corrupted with numerous evils. Nobody was spared from the taxes imposed by the church. The church owned huge private property. The Pope and the high priestly class used their money according to their own desire. Consequently, they became pleasure seekers and corrupted. They had quarrelled over postings and offices. They had fallen from high standard of morality for which the Roman Catholic world was known; forgot religious pursuits and sought pleasures in the worldly life.
According to the rules, the monks could not marry. However, they indulged in immoral activities with the nuns of the convents. The number of their illegitimate children was increasing day by day. Similarly, Pope Leo X (1513- 1521) was notorious for spending 6000 'ducata' per month for gambling. He did not mind indulging in extremely heinous acts to collect money. The public outcry against the church increased further when the intellectual class elaborated upon the evils of the church before the Europeans like in the Praise of Folly by Erasmus.
(2). Privileges of the Pope and the Priests: - In the social system of Europe the Ecclesiastic class was one of the privileged class. No law of the country had the jurisdiction over them. Even if they committed any crime, the could not be tried in any of the courts of the country. Only the inquisition – the court of the church headed by a priest, could punish such a priest. In this way they always escaped the punishment . Even if they were convicted by their religious court , they used to receive mild punishments in comparison to the common man. It was almost very difficult for the common man to continue to suffer because of those privileges enjoyed by these religiously corrupt priestly class.
The Pope had appointed 'Legate and Nunsius' as his representatives in very European country for the protection of the Christians. They did not pay any regards to the orders of any authority except that of Pope.
(3) Pope's Interference in the Political Affairs: - Pope was having absolute power not only in the religious sphere but he was wielding far reaching influence in the political sphere of Europe also. His political influence was so strong that every coronation in European countries was either conducted by him or had at least his consent. Otherwise, no coronation could take place. He demonstrated his absolute political power by not only punishing the common man of any country but even the kings of the various countries. He also interfered in the internal and external matters of the different countries. Hence, the various European kings challenged the political privileges and the rights of the Pope and struggled to get themselves free from the influence of the Pope but the Pope suppressed their revolt with force. Henry II of England was one of the victims among such kings, against whom, the Pope demonstrated his unlimited powers. That is why when the Reformation Movement started, the kings of Europe participate in its spread.
(4). Greed of the Kings: - No state administration can be managed without the abundant sources of income but the church had control over most of the property of Europe. The church had raised a huge property by imposing various taxes, sale of letter of indulgence, and the ecclesiastic posts. The public did not have enough money to feed the church and pay the kings also. Hence, when the kings of Europe needed money to fulfill their needs, their attention was naturally arrested by the large wealth in possession of the churches. They had been waiting and seeking such an opportunity when they could take the large property of churches in their possession. In the meantime the Pope with the motive of increasing their collection extended the ambit of Tithe which was strongly opposed by the people as well the kings. Hence, it can be said that the monetary demand of the Pope was the cause of the Reformation Movement. Hence, the desire on the part of princes to acquire the wealth of the churches, along with the discontent of the people, was one of the major causes.
(5). Support of Merchants to the Kings: - The European traders had been endangering their life when they visited far off countries. They earned lot of money from such trades. However, the use of their hard earned money was being denied to them by the Pope and the high priest by different means. They were tired of this type of financial oppression and they started supporting and strengthening the kings. These powerful rulers became their protectors. The kings, who received the support of the wealth of the rich merchant, raised the strong armies. All these factors encouraged the kings and the people to raise their voice against the oppression of Pope, which strengthened the feeling of religious reforms.
(6). Rise of Nationalism: - With the coming of the modern age, the spirit of nationalism became strong and it provided a solid base to the Reformation Movement. Before it, the influence of the Pope and the church was so strong that they, instead of obeying the laws and traditions of their country, obeyed the dictates of the Pope. But with the rise of the feeling of nationalism, they started identifying the Pope as a foreigner and started working for the uplift of their country and race. The kings exploited such feelings of their subjects to the maximum and started inciting the public to destroy the dominance of the Pope. In this manner the public rage against the Pope and the church rose to such an extent that it erupted in a form of very strong movement for the reformation of religion.
(7). Influence of Renaissance: - The Renaissance was such a revolution which had inculcated among the Europeans a new awareness that had attacked the religious dogmas, superstition and blind faith. The Europeans acquired rational and scientific attitude under the influence of Renaissance. They were not ready to accept the validity of any assertion, unless they had made empirical and rational evaluation of the facts. The invention of Printing process helped the printing of as many number of copies of Bible as required. After getting it translated in various languages, these were made available to the large multitude of people. They studied Bible in their own language and came to know that church had been befooling them in the name of religion. In the meantime, many religious reformers of Europe toured Italy. On their return, they made their countrymen aware of the evils prevalent in the church. The people with rational attitude of life could not tolerate the corruption in their religion and soon their dissatisfaction turned into anger. This paved the way for religious reformation.
(8). Opposition of Pope by the Religious Reformers: - The Europeans religious reformers played a commendable role in the starting and spread of religious reform movement. These religious reformers exposed the shortcoming of the contemporary religious setup before the eyes of the Europeans. The first reformer to take the initiative was Waycllif. He was from England and a professor in the Oxford University in England. He translated the Bible into English language and saved the common man from misguidance at the hands of church. He explained to the people that the extreme wealth and money of the church was the main cause of the evils of the church. Hence, in order to maintain the religious sanctity of the church, the property of the church should be snatched from it.
(9). Immediate Cause- 95 Theses of Martin Luther and his Role: - The Reformation Movement got the maximum strength from the efforts of Martin Luther, the famous reformer from German. In 1511, he visited Rome. There he was astonished to watch the corrupt and immoral life of the priestly class headed by pope himself. It hurt his faith and religious feelings and became the staunch opponent of pope.

The opposition of Luther became highly aggressive against the Pope when he raised a strong voice against the selling of 'letter of indulgence' by the Pope Leo X. In these letters, the church had given the assurance to the buyer of a place in heavens in spite of their sinful life. In the various sacraments and religious traditions of Christianity, the letter of indulgence has a very pious meaning and is an act of sanctity and religious merit. It is given to a person, who takes a vow before the pope, that he would never commit sins in future; shows a genuine repentance for the misdeed and sins committed earlier, and sincere in his vow to do the Penance The Pope had been conducting an open sale and made a virtual mockery of this pious tradition of high religious merit. The evil doers were buying it for the satisfaction of their conscience but continuing with their misdeed. The church was collecting a fortune by selling it like a ticket to Heavens. Luther tried to stop the sale of such letter in Wuttenberg, where he was a priest in a church. He wrote 95 points, which are called 'Thesis' also, and it contained the misdeeds of the Pope and a challenge to him on the basis of the contents of the Bible. Luther had mastered the contents of the Bible. He had the understanding of the real meanings of the contents of the Bible. He displayed his 95 thesis on the door of the church of Wuttenberg. The Germans were highly influenced by it as they had in their mind similar objections to the activities of the Pope. As a result, the opposition to the Pope started rising day by day. In the most quoted verdict of the Historian Hayes, "Luther's Ninety Five theses against the indulgence in 1517 led to a sort of universal revolt in Germany against Pope and his Catholic religion and facilitated the foundation of Protestant church."
The Reformation movement got the maximum strength from the efforts of Martin Luther, the famous reformer from Germany.
Effects of Reformation:
(1). Cause of Counter Reformation Movement: In face of strong protest of Protestant movement, the genuine Roman Catholic started self correction movement. They brought changes in the organisation and administration of Church and started propagation of the Christian religion. The Council of Trent brought such changes. Jesuit Order was established to promote the cause of Christianity. The Inquisition, the religious court was revived which gave strong punishment to defaulting religious priests.
(2). Division of Christian World: Due to Reformation, the Roman Christian world was clearly divided. The North part of Europe became Protestant and the South part including Austria remained Roman Catholic. It became the cause of much political turmoil in future due to this religious basis.
(3). Growth of Intolerance: With the rise of Protestantism and Catholicism, as separate identities, a contention developed among them. It was soon developed into enmity and hostility. It was followed by number of massacre of Protestant at the hand of Catholics and of Catholics at the hand of Protestants. The goriest incidence was of St. Bartholomew’s Day in France in 1572. During that day, the Catholics killed Protestants.
(4). Rise of powerful Kings: With the rise of Reformation, the kings of England, Germany, Norway and Sweden, and Holland, became powerful and annexed the properties of Church. The Catholic Kings also followed they example at many places. The Protestant kings, like in England tried to take over the religious matters in their hand.
(5). Encouraged Trade and Commerce: The Roman Catholic Church was against charging interest, which was not the case with the Protestant church. The Protestant church favoured frugality and hard work. Such mental attitudes were conducive for the encouragement of trade and commence. Further, the Protestant people enjoyed living life of luxury whereas the Catholic Church believed the life after death and did not encouraged luxurious living. Hence, the Protestantism favoured such attitudes, which favoured trade and commerce. With the establishment of Protestantism as an acknowledged religious way of life, the trade and commerce flourished.

The Renaissance (Descriptive, Refresher Type) for B. A. III

Paper A: World History 1500-18701

1. The Renaissance and Reformation: Decline of Feudalism; Factors for the growth of Renaissance and its effects in Europe; Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation; Counter Reformation.

The Renaissance

ऊपर दिए गए Syllabus के बिन्‍दु पर अधारित निचे दिए गए प्रश्‍न को तैयार करें।

Question: II-1-2: Discuss the circumstances responsible for the rapid growth of Renaissance in Europe. What were its effects?

Or

Write the causes and effects of Renaissance.

Answer: Definition of Renaissance: Rebirth, Reawakening, Intellectual Awareness, Resurgence, Cultural Awakening and Cultural Revivalism are different terms which are used for Renaissance in history. After the thirteenth century, under the changing conditions of the time, man tried to discover the man and the world. It was like awakening to the true realities about the nature and man. This awakening is referred to as Renaissance. It is a French word, which means to wake again from a sleep. Some authorities have called it rebirth. It was not an event, but a distinct phase of epoch making effects, which continued as a parallel movement along with other changes in the European history. It was an intellectual, liberal, and cultural movement. The conquest of Turks over Constantinople is considered as that political event which started it. However, it is considered to have continued from the 14th to 16th century (or from 1350 AD to 1550 AD). It was a phase of changes which were more evident in cultural sphere and not a political event.
The Main Features of Renaissance:
(i) Importance to Humanism: There was stressed on Humanism, which was the distinctive feature of Renaissance.
(ii) Rational Attitude: The rational attitude replaced the superstitious beliefs.
(iii) Importance of Experiment: -Under Renaissance, the facts were accepted true only when authenticated by experiments.

(iv) Worship of Nature in art and philosophy: The worship of the beauty of nature started again under the influence of Renaissance. Such attitudes were not favoured in medieval period of Europe with had followed the Grecian and Roman period. The European considered them blasphemous and faith of heretics. However, during the Renaissance period, the values and attitudes of Ancient Greek and Roman culture were being reestablished. No doubt, some historians prefer to rate the Renaissance only as a cultural awakening or resurgence as it had influenced the culture aspects of Europe the most.

Causes of Renaissance: The circumstances and causes, which brought about above mentioned changes are discussed in brief as follows.
1. Crusades: - Crusaders brought new thoughts and beliefs, which replaced the old thoughts, beliefs and institutions. The crusades took pace in 1095 and 1291. As a result the Europeans came in contact with the people of East. In East, the Arabs were definitely leading a more civilized life due to their contacts with both the highly civilized Indian and Grecian cultures. The crusades had also encouraged the voyages and geographical studies. Their mental horizon expanded when they were exposed to other people and new ideas. They came back to Europe with scientific books of Aristotle, the Arabic numerals, mariners compass, and paper. They helped in breaking the hold of church and Christianity over the mental life of Europe which was starting point of Renaissance.
2. Commercial Prosperity: - Firstly, the trade links brought the prosperity and exposure to new avenues. Secondly, new cities like Venice, Milan, Florence etc. emerged. It became the meeting place with foreign traders within Europe and its free atmosphere was highly conducive for the rise of Renaissance. Thirdly, the large capital, which the traders acquired, had given them confidence and they sought knowledge and power. Fourthly, the traders started questioning church when it objected to charging interest on lending. All such factors marked the rise of new awareness, which was main engine for the rise of Renaissance.
3. Paper and Printing Press: Europeans learned the technique printing from the Arabs. Around 1450, John Gutenburg invented a typing machine, which can be called as the forerunner of the modern press. Printing presses were used in Rome in 1466. Caxton setup a printing press in Britain in 1477. The printing press brought revolutionary changes in the growth of intellectual sphere. The invention of paper and printing device brought about revolutionary changes. The books were made available in large quantities at very low prices. Therefore, the knowledge did not remain the monopoly of a single class. With the spread of knowledge, the hold of superstitious and blind faith was loosened and the people developed self-confidence. Hence, it is evident that the paper and the printing devices were the most influencing cause of Renaissance. It is true because the intellectual awareness increased in the real sense only after the invention of printing.
4. Decline of Feudalism: The Renaissance was able to flourish because the Feudalism was declining. The cause of decline of feudalism was the rise of middle class and their support to the kings. It was this middle class which promoted Renaissance only when the feudalism declined.
5. Occupation of Constantinople by the Turks: - In 1453, the Turkish Empire occupied Constantinople, the capital of Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire of ancient times). Secondly, the Constantinople was great center of knowledge, philosophy and art. The Turks loved to fight but they had no love and utility for anything that could enhance their knowledge. Thousand of Greek scholars, philosophers and artists of this city were forced to migrate to other countries like Italy, France, Germany, England etc. in search of livelihood. They also took away to these countries the ancient Greek and Roman knowledge, science and a new way of thinking along with them. One cardinal brought 800 manuscripts to Italy. Thus, we can say that the fall of Constantinople paved the way for the Renaissance.
6. Rise of Mongol Empire: - The rise of the Mongolian Empire gave strong impetus to the movement of Renaissance. Kublai Khan raised a vast and powerful empire. In this great empire, unparalleled in those days, preachers and businessmen were highly respected. The presence of the representatives of Pope, Buddhist monks, mathematicians, and astrologers from India and artisans from Paris, Italy and China graced his court. His court was virtually a meeting place of East and West. This contact paved the way for exchange of thoughts and knowledge, which made epoch making affect on Europe. Marco Polo, the famous traveler from Venice, visited the court of Kublai Khan, in 1272 AD. His writings thrilled the people of Europe for a long time to come. It will not be out of place to mention that the people of Europe learnt about paper, printing, compass and gun powder on their contacts with Mongols.
7. Role of Progressive Rulers , Nobles, Popes and Middle Class Capitalists: The rulers like Henry VIII, Charles V etc were great lovers of art and philosophy. They patronised many artists and scholars. Similarly, Pope Leo X was known for his love for architectural activities. In Florence, the rich families like Medici family, patronised the artists and scholars and provided them the free environment where the scholars gave full freedom to the intellectual flights. Such an atmosphere was a precondition for the rise of Renaissance.
8. Scientific Inventions: The scientific inventions became the rise of Renaissance and decline of superstition which had clouded the brain of medieval Europe. New geographical discoveries were made. The world was shown as round body and sun was proved as the centre of the universe. It shattered the grip of Church on the intellectual abilities of the people and helped them to imbibe the attitude of humanism and rationality which were the soul of Renaissance.
9. Emergence of new Cities: New Cities like Milan, Venice, Florence, Lisbon, Amherstdom etc flourished. They had more democratic set up which afforded more freedom to their citizens. These cities had risen with the efforts of the middle class which was open to new thoughts and despised the clogging of intellectual development under the suffocating control of Pope and his church. They were the people who promoted the cause of Renaissance. The leading three artistic of Renaissance period namely, Michaelanglo, Leonardo and Raphel all belonged to Florence.

Effects of Renaissance:

Social Effects:
1. Improvement in the condition of Women: The condition of women, especially from the upper class improved due to Renaissance. They started taking education and showed interest in social, economic and political life. The period saw the rise of women scholars like Cassandra, Varano, Vittoria etc. The women also changed the way of clothing and fashion. They started using wigs and showed special attention to jewelry of diamond.
2. Manners and Etiquette: Under the influence of Renaissance, people developed new table manners. They also made spices indispensable part of their food. They also developed Etiquette of Conversation. The people interacted with the scholars, poets and musician with more intimacy. The women were accorded special treatment in social gatherings.
3. Decline in Morality: One of the negative impact of Renaissance was that the society experience in the decline in the moral standard of the people. The people had started questioning the ways of church and became more materialists. They adopted foul means to become rich. even the artists tried to dupe the innocent people. The period saw the writings like the Prince by Machiavelli which encouraged the kings to adopt the corrupt means to maintain their rule. Cheating, robbery, murder, and theft increased during the Renaissance period.
Cultural Effects:
4. Development of Literature: The Renaissance encouraged the vernacular and national languages. High class literature was produced in the languages of masses like in Italian, French, English, Spanish, German, Dutch etc. Similarly, deep study was undertaken in the literature of Latin and Greek. The world famous writers like Dante, Petrarch, Boccacio, Machiavelli, Chaucer, More, Shakespeare, Erasmus, Luther etc. emerged.
5. Development of Fine Arts: The effect of Renaissance was most revealed in the field of Fine Arts. The Paining got new life. It was more near to the real life situation. Experiments were made with different hues of colour. Similarly, the science of architecture and sculpturing made tremendous progress. The music was also enriched under the Influence of Renaissance. Renaissance gave the artists of repute like Leonardo, Michaelanglo, Raphel, Titani, Gilbarti, Beck etc.
6. Scientific inventions and Discoveries: Renaissance inculcated the spirit of rationality and experimentation. It led to many scientific discoveries and inventions. Kapler, Galilieo and Copernicus made many geographical and space discoveries. Newton wrote new physical laws. Similarly achievements were made in the field of chemistry, medical science, and physics.
7. Geographical Discoveries: Columbus, Vascodi Gama, Magellan made geographical discoveries under the spirit of Renaissance. New tread routes were discovered to the Asian and African countries and new continents of South America, North America and Australia were discovered.
Economic Effects:
1. Development of Trade and Commerce: The people became materialist and this wordily under the influence of Renaissance. It encouraged trade and commerce. It led to rise of mercantilism in Europe.
Rise of Industry and Capitalist System: With the rise of trade and commerce, the industry and capitalism also flourished. The rich class started earning huge profits. They exploited the workers and the condition of workers became miserable.
2. Colonialism: With the rise of trade, commerce and industry, the Europeans countries needed areas for procuring raw material and markets to sell their finished goods. It led to rise of colonialism.
Political Effect:
1. Rise of Strong Monarchies: Renaissance brought forth the ideal of strong Roman Monarchs. It led to the rise of strong monarchies in Europe. On one hand it reduced the importance of Church and on the other hand national states like England, France, Austria and Prussia emerged.
2. Change in Warfare: With the discovery of gun powders and invention of guns and mortars the scene of battle field changed. The forts lost its importance as the secured places as they could not stand the barge of gun fires.
3. Encouragement to Virtue Less Politics: It brought to the forth the ideal of opportunism in the field of politics. The Prince of Machiavelli became the bible of the kings who adopted all the wrong and right means to maintain their rule. It led to anarchy when the monarchies became oppressive.

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कुल शब्‍दः १०७७७

आप को यह प्रश्‍न लिखने के लिए ४५ मिण्‍ट से ज्‍यादा समय नहीं लगना चाहिए।

अगर इस से ज्‍यादा समय लगता है तो आप sure short वाला उत्तर अपना सकते हैं।

Sure Short वाला उत्तर जलद ही प्रकाशित किया जाएगा ।

Feudalism (Descriptive, Refresher Type) for B. A. III

Q: Analyses the factors responsible for the decline of feudalism.

Or

Define the Feudalism and write the causes of the decline of Feudalism.

Answer: Meaning of the Term: Feudalism was a political and social system. It was based on a contractual arrangement of political and military relationships existing among members of the nobility in Western Europe during the medieval period. The core of the contract was the land relations between the feudal lords and their vassals. The salient feature of the land contracts was the granting of fiefs, chiefly in the form of land and labour, in return for political and military services— a deal sealed by oaths of homage and fidelity.

Origin and Duration: The period of the dominance of feudalism spanned from 900 to 1500. Though its source is found in post 450 AD period, it mainly started after the period of Charlemagne. After him, the kings found it difficult to administer vast areas of land. As a result, they parcelled out their land among their vassals who assured the military assistance during the hour of need in return of the land ownership and enjoyment of rights which were transferred to them along with the land ownership. It served its purpose for all those centuries quite well as the feudal lords became the guarantee of security of life and property of the people who inhabited their fiefdom. However, with the passage of time, it outlived its utility when new changed took place in the political, social and economic field. It also developed some vices which became the cause of its decline.

Causes of the Decline of Feudalism :
The Feudalism declined due to the multiplicity of causes. Since feudalism was based on the idea of land tenure paid for by governmental work, every process that tended to alter this adjustment also tended to displace feudalism. Secondly, feudalism had overreached its utility and outlived its necessity. Hence, the decline followed when new changes took place.

Rise of Standing Armies: There rose a new system of raising troops for war. It increased the importance of money over land. This was not good for the survival of Feudalism.

Fall in the importance of Knights: The Knights were the soldiers of Feudal lords who usually remained free. The Feudal lords did not want to retain them due to changes in economic conditions. The Knights also preferred to pay their service in the form of cash. Later they started paying it to the kings. It reduced the importance of the Feudal Lords. The knights shifted to business fields.

Money became the Power: The land was the symbol of power in the Feudal system. But Money became the symbol of power. The king could pay wages to the soldiers and become powerful than the feudal lords. The old conception of the feudal force had completely disappeared.

Change in methods of fighting Battles: The change in the practices of fighting battles caused the decline of Feudalism. Using artillery, the attacking force completely dominated the defensive mode of Knights. Fortified castles declined in value. Archers and foot soldiers increased in importance. Heavily armoured knights were becoming useless in battle. Especially on the Continent, the supremacy of foot soldiers, horse riders and arrow shooters were assured.

Use of New Weapons and Gun-Powder: The King used guns and gunpowder in destroying the forts of the feudal lords which they could not afford to do earlier. The new weapons, the latest techniques of warfare and extensive use of gunpowder helped the Kings to subjugate the feudal lords which ended the Feudalism.

New Political Institutions: The rise to power of popular assemblies, like States-General, Cortes, Diets, or Parliaments, established the growing importance of the middle class. They became the primary cause of the destroying feudalism.

Resurgence of the Judicial and Financial Authority of the Kings: All over Europe, legal kings, like Edward I of England, were rearranging the constitutions of their countries. The king's officers, with their knowledge of civil and canon law, able to spell out the old customs and traditions. Appeals were encouraged. Civil, as well as criminal litigations, came into the royal courts. Finance, the royal auditing of the accounts of sheriffs, bailiffs, etc. increased the royal hold on the country, broke down the power of the landed classes, and drew the king and peoples into an alliance against the great nobles.

In-build mechanism of the decline of Feudalism: The decline of Feudalism began in the 13th century. It was bound to decline because of its internal mechanism, and with it, a particular form of administration, its economic and social setup came to end which had survived for quite a long time after having fulfilled its utility. However, as a social system, it continued for some more time. It did not end at the same time and entirely in all the countries.

Growth in the Agriculture Yield: The improvement in agricultural techniques increased production. Europe adopted a three-belt system to get two harvests in one year. The population of Europe doubled between 1000 and 1300. The increased production helped in the increase of population and urbanization. It reduced the dependence of the farmers on the feudal lords.

Crusades: The crusades took place in 1095 and 1291. The feudal lords either sold their land or mortgaged it to face the hardship of the crusades. Many feudal lords were also killed in the crusades. It gave an opportunity for the kings to take over their land. Such factors played a decisive role in reducing the influence of the feudal lords and ultimately caused the decline of Feudalism.

Emergence of Commercial class: Commerce and trade grew fast as a result of crusades. The demand for luxurious items increased due to the contact with new countries owing to crusades. It became the cause of the rise of the commercial class. The business class had members who were richer than the feudal lords. However, they did not relish the lack of social respect for them and the absence of their own interference in the administration. They gained the influence by extending the monetary help to the kings for the suppression of the feudal lords.

Importance of Commercial Cities: In Europe, trade fairs were held regularly between 1200 to 1400. They were usually an affair for three to four weeks. However, when the commercial cities emerged, the trade continued for the whole of the year. They prepared the grounds for the commercialization which was a cause of the decline of feudalism.

Labourers were needed in Cities: With the rise of commercial activities and the trade cities, the businessmen required a large number of labourers. They started enticing the farmworkers of the feudal lords. It brought them in conflict with the feudal lords. Therefore, the business class needed protection against the feudal lords. That help was readily available from kings who also wanted to end the feudal lords. The commercial class and kings joined together against the feudal lords, and the finished the feudal system.

Support and acceptance to the institution of Kingship: The king raised the permanent army with the monetary help of the middle class which became the source of strength of the kings. They also received the support of the other section of the society against the feudal lords. The kings imposed direct taxes and raised his own bureaucracy. Gradually it increased the sense of nationalism. However, before that, it ended the importance of feudal features, and feudal lords were subdued.

Revolt of the farmers: The farmers rebelled against the feudal atrocities when they increased the restrictions on them to move to cities. The farmers wanted fixed wages. They received the support of the other working section of society. Their revolts were suppressed ruthlessly. It forced them to escape them to city-states where the businessmen were ready to pay them in cash for their wages.

Black death: The Black death which took place caused the large-scale deaths of many farmers. It was caused due to the ecological changes. Such changes took place in the 14th century. It led to extensive rain in 1315 and 1316. It was followed by epidemics. The most terrible one was the Black deaths due to cholera which took place between 1348 to 1351. The farmers escaped to the cities where they could escape from the epidemics and shortage of foods. They got work on wages. It weakened the strength of the feudal lords.

Mutual Discord among Feudal Lords: The feudal lords had mutual discord among themselves. They had the army which they used against each other. It weakened them. They fought for the more land because they did not have a fear of the king. They had the support of the local Church leaders. They also fought to establish their seniority over others. They fought because they found that the other feudal lord was vulnerable and they could snatch his right and fief. However, all the discords weakened them when they fought with each other.

Influence of changing economy on feudal lords: Feudal Lords learned the benefit of receiving rent in the form of cash in place of service. It helped them to recruit more workers and get better agriculture production. They also developed the liking for the city life and desired to serve the kings in cities than to spend their lives in villages. It was as if the feudal lords themselves tried to end the feudal setup. Some feudal lords married into the commercial class. They learned about better means of earnings form the experience of the mercantile class. It became the cause of the decline of the feudal system.

New Economic Changes: The changes in agriculture brought the following changes in Europe during the 11th and 12th century.
 a). Because of the technological advancement, the demand for labour slumped whereas the population and land under cultivation increased.
b). The regeneration of trade in Europe increased the supply of money in Europe.
c). The increase of the money transaction loosened the grip of the feudal setup.
d). The internal structure of the manor changed due to the rise in the money-based transactions. The feudal lords preferred to receive the tax in the form of cash in place of service. They also preferred to employ labourers on wages to work in their fields. The serfs also preferred to pay tax in the form of money in place of service.
e). The increase of production and rise in business activities encouraged urbanization and business.

New Economic changes in Agriculture: Agriculture became a venture of money investment. As a result, the small farmers were forced to sell their lands when their crops failed and joined the labour market. The big landlords were there to employ them on wages. Hence, the capitalist farmers and the landless farm workers were the new features of the new emerging economy. In such an economic setup, the feudal lords also directed their money towards investments in the business.

The Feudalism declined due to the multiplicity of causes. However, it did not end at the same time in the whole of Europe. It lingered on in countries like Russia till the end of the 19th century where the Russian Czar, Alexander II, ended it by his royal order in 1868.


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Roll Call of B. A. III, Section C, Room 13 Period VII from July 25, 2005 to August 18, 2005

Roll Call of B. A. III, Section C, Room 13 Period VII from July 25, 2005 to August 18,2005(Total Lecture delivered 20)
Sr. no.	Roll No.	Attnds.	Remarks
1	3001	0	shifted
2	3005	0	None
3	3011	20	None
4	3012	15	None
5	3013	15	None
6	3020	7	shifted
7	3021	0	None
8	3022	20	None
9	3023	7	None
10	3024	0	None
11	3025	5	None
12	3026	0	None
13	3027	0	None
14	3028	6	None
15	3029	6	None
16	3030	11	shifted
17	3031	0	None
18	3032	0	None
19	3033	0	None
20	3034	0	None
21	3035	6	None
22	3039	0	None
23	3040	0	None
24	3041	0	None
25	3042	0	None
26	3043	20	None
27	3044	0	None
28	3045	0	None
29	3048	0	shifted
30	3049	0	shifted
31	3050	0	shifted
32	3051	11	shifted
33	3052	0	shifted
34	3053	0	shifted
35	3054	0	None
36	3057	0	None
37	3058	0	shifted
38	3062	20	None
39	3064	14	None
40	3065	14	None
41	3066	14	None
42	3067	0	None
43	3069	13	None
44	3071	15	None
45	3073	12	None
46	3074	10	None
47	3075	10	None
48	3076	12	None
49	3081	0	None
50	3082	0	None
51	3083	0	None
52	3084	14	None
53	3085	11	None
54	3086	0	None
55	3091	12	None
56	3093	15	None
57	3094	1	shifted
58	3097	11	None
59	3101	13	None
60	3102	0	None
61	3103	0	None
62	3104	0	None
63	3105	0	None
64	3106	11	None
65	3108	0	None
66	3109	0	None
67	3110	20	None
68	3112	11	None
69	3113	6	None
70	3114	4	None
71	3115	11	None
72	3118	6	None
73	3119	12	None
74	3120	0	shifted
75	3121	12	None
76	3122	0	None
77	3123	12	None
78	3124	9	None
79	3125	0	None
80	3126	0	shifted
81	3128	0	None
82	3129	11	None
83	3130	11	None
84	3131	0	None
85	3132	0	None
86	3133	0	None
87	3134	11	None
88	3135	9	None

Final Statement of B.A. I from July 23, 2005 to August 18, 2005

Roll Call for B. A. I, Section C upto August 18, 2005(Total Lecture delievered=20)
Sr. no.	Name; Medium; Plus 2; Percent	Roll no.	Net Attend.	Remarks	Future Plans
1	Not available	2106	20	Regular	Not Reported
2	Not available	2110	0	Too short	Not Reported
3	Not available	2126	7	Too short	Not Reported
4	Sachin Sharma Hi. 48%	2127	20	Regular	Not Reported
5	GauravDua Hi. 50%	2128	20	Regular	Not Reported
6	Not available	2132	18	Regular	Not Reported
7	Not available	2133	19	Regular	Not Reported
8	Not available	2134	19	Regular	Not Reported
9	Not available	2140	16	Regular	Not Reported
10	Not available	2147	20	Regular	Not Reported
11	Not available	2151	0	Too short	Not Reported
12	Not available	2164	20	Regular	Not Reported
13	Not available	2165	19	Regular	Not Reported
14	Gurpreet Pbi. 50%	2172	20	Regular	Not Reported
15	Not available	2173	0	Too short	Not Reported
16	Not available	2174	0	Too short	Not Reported
17	Not available	2175	0	Too short	Not Reported
18	Not available	2176	20	Regular	Not Reported
19	Not available	2177	20	Regular	Not Reported
20	Not available	2186	13	Short	Not Reported
21	Not available	2189	17	Regular	Not Reported
22	Rakesh Kumar Pbi. 58%	2192	20	Regular	Not Reported
23	Tarun Malhotra Eng. 49%	2198	20	Regular	Not Reported
24	Amarjeet Pbi. 48%	2205	20	Regular	Not Reported
25	Not available	2207	14	Short	Not Reported
26	Not available	2208	18	Regular	Not Reported
27	Not available	2209	18	Regular	Not Reported
28	Not available	2214	12	Short	Not Reported
29	Not available	2215	12	Short	Not Reported
30	Malkiat Pbi. 54%	2216	20	Regular	Not Reported
31	Kanav Bawa Eng. 62%	2222	20	Regular	MBA
32	Not available	2228	0	Too short	Not Reported
33	Amarinder Singh Pbi. 52%	2234	20	Regular	Not Reported
34	Not available	2235	20	Regular	Not Reported
35	Dhiraj Sharma Hi. 55%	2236	20	Regular	Not Reported
36	Angab Singh Pbi. 49%	2237	20	Regular	Not Reported
37	Not available	2238	19	Regular	Not Reported
38	Not available	2248	20	Regular	Not Reported
39	Kamaldeep Pbi. 66%	2251	20	Regular	Not Reported
40	Not available	2262	20	Regular	Not Reported
41	Not available	2273	20	Regular	Not Reported
42	Guriqbal Singh Pbi. 49%	2281	14	Short	Not Reported
43	Sahil Chabbra Pbi. 39%	2286	20	Regular	L.L.B
44	Not available	2293	0	Too short	Not Reported
45	Not available	2295	7	Short	Not Reported
46	Not available	2303	1	Too short	Not Reported
47	Sonu Hi. 45%	2304	20	Regular	Not Reported
48	Not available	2309	12	Short	Not Reported
49	Not available	2313	19	Regular	Not Reported
50	Paramjeet Pbi. 56%	2321	13	Short	Not Reported
51	Not available	2322	10	Too short	Not Reported
52	Not available	2323	0	Too short	Not Reported
53	Not available	2324	4	Too short	Not Reported
54	Not available	2325	5	Too short	Not Reported
55	Not available	2326	1	Too short	Not Reported
56	Not available	2327	13	Short	Not Reported
57	Not available	2328	0	Too short	Not Reported
58	Not available	2329	0	Too short	Not Reported
59	Not available	2330	6	Too short	Not Reported
60	Not available	2331	7	Reported shift	Null
61	Gurpreet Pbi. 50%	2332	13	Short	Not Reported
62	Pardeep Singh Pbi. 51%	2333	13	Short	Not Reported
63	Not available	2334	13	Short	Not Reported
64	Not available	2335	0	Too short	Not Reported
65	Not available	2338	17	Regular	Not Reported
66	Not available	2339	1	Too short	Not Reported
67	Not available	2340	0	Too short	Not Reported
68	Not available	2342	10	Too short	Not Reported
69	Not available	2344	3	Too short	Not Reported
70	Not available	2348	10	Too short	Not Reported
71	Not available	2349	0	Too short	Not Reported
72	Not available	2350	0	Too short	Not Reported
73	Kulwinder Pbi. 45%	2352	14	Short	Not Reported
74	Arun Sharma Pbi. 78%	2354	15	Regular	Cri; Coaching
75	Not available	2355	14	Short	Not Reported
76	Ashok Hi. 48%	2362	10	Too short	Not Reported
77	Not available	2391	9	Too short	Not Reported
78	Not available	2414	6	Too short	Not Reported

Roll Call for B. A. I Section C upto August 13, 2005

Attention B. A. I. Section C Students

Find below the statement of Roll Call as it stands on August 13, 2005.

The Classes was conducted by Sumir Sharma, Senior Lecturer, Department of Post Graduate Studies in History, Arya College, Ludhiana

Place of Holding the Lectures was Room No: 7 for the Period as per the Time Table in force: Fourth period from 11 A. M. to 11.45 A. M.

The statement is for the period extending from July 23, 2005 to August 13, 2005. The total numbers of lecture delivered during this period are 17. The Roll nos. appear as they were provided or procured by students on their own efforts under the signature of the members of the Time Table Committee.

It is a tentative statement. The final statement will be published (which may appear here as an edited statement) when the register will be submitted after holding 20 lectures.

Roll Call for B. A. I, Section C upto August 13, 2005(Total Lecture delievered=17)
Sr. no.	Roll no.	Name	Lectures attended	Shortfall	Remarks
1	2110	Not available	0	17 i.e 100%	Never attended till this day
2	2126	Not available	07	10 i.e. 58%	Lectures too short
3	2127	Not available	16	1 i.e.5%	Regular
4	2128	Not available	16	1 i.e.5%	Regular
5	2133	Not available	15	2 i.e 11%	Regular
6	2134	Not available	16	1 i.e.5%	Regular
7	2140	Not available	13	4 i.e. 23%	On margin
8	2147	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
9	2151	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
10	2164	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
11	2165	Not available	16	01 i.e.5%	Regular
12	2172	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
13	2173	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
14	2175	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
15	2175	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
16	2177	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
17	2186	Not available	15	02 i.e. 11%	Regular
18	2186	Not available	13	04 i.e. 23%	On margin
19	2189	Not available	13	04 i.e. 23%	On margin
20	2192	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
21	2198	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
22	2205	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
23	2208	Not available	16	01 i.e.5%	Regular
24	2209	Not available	16	01 i.e.5%	Regular
25	2214	Not available	12	05 i.e. 29%	On margin
26	2215	Not available	07	10 i.e. 41%	Lectures too short; doubtful
27	2216	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
28	2222	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
29	2228	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
30	2234	Not available	16	01 i.e.5%	Regular
31	2235	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
32	2236	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
33	2237	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
34	2238	Not available	15	02 i.e. 11%	Regular
35	2248	Not available	16	01 i.e.5%	Regular
36	2251	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
37	2262	Not available	16	01 i.e.5%	Regular
38	2273	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
39	2281	Not available	10	07 i.e. 41%	Lectures too short; doubtful
40	2286	Not available	17	00 i.e.5%	Regular
41	2293	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
42	2295	Not available	07	10 i.e. 58 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
43	2303	Not available	01	16 i.e. 94 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
44	2304	Not available	17	00 i.e nil	Regular
45	2354	Not available	15	02 i.e. 11%	Regular
46	2355	Not available	12	05 i.e. 29%	on margin
47	2207	Not available	11	06 i.e. 35%	Lectures too short; doubtful
48	2352	Not available	10	07 i.e. 41%	Lectures too short; doubtful
49	2391	Not available	09	08 i.e. 41%	Lectures too short; doubtful
50	2106	Not available	17	00 i.e. 47%	Lectures too short; doubtful
51	2313	Not available	16	01 i.e.5%	Regular
52	2309	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
53	2321	Not available	09	08 i.e. 41%	Lectures too short; doubtful
54	2322	Not available	10	07 i.e. 41%	Lectures too short; doubtful
55	2323	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
56	2324	Not available	01	16 i.e. 94 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
57	2325	Not available	01	16 i.e. 94 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
58	2326	Not available	01	16 i.e. 94 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
59	2327	Not available	09	08 i.e. 41%	Lectures too short; doubtful
60	2328	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
61	2329	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
62	2330	Not available	06	11 i.e. 64 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
63	2331	Not available	07	10 i.e. 58%	Lectures too short; doubtful
64	2332	Not available	09	08 i.e. 41%	Lectures too short; doubtful
65	2333	Not available	09	08 i.e. 41%	Lectures too short; doubtful
66	2334	Not available	10	07 i.e. 41%	Lectures too short; doubtful
67	2335	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
68	2338	Not available	15	02 i.e. 11%	Regular
69	2339	Not available	01	16 i.e. 94 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
70	2340	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
71	2342	Not available	07	10 i.e. 58%	Lectures too short; doubtful
72	2343	Not available	06	11 i.e. 64 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
73	2348	Not available	07	10 i.e. 58%	Lectures too short; doubtful
74	2349	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
75	2350	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
76	2352	Not available	05	12 i.e. 70%	Lectures too short; doubtful
77	2354	Not available	00	17 i.e. 100 %	never attended
78	2362	Not available	06	11 i.e. 64 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
79	2414	Not available	06	11 i.e. 64 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
80	2132	Not available	07	10 i.e. 58%	Lectures too short; doubtful
81	2173	Not available	01	16 i.e. 94 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
82	2175	Not available	01	16 i.e. 94 %	Lectures too short; doubtful
83	2344	Not available	01	16 i.e. 94 %	Lectures too short; doubtful

विद्यार्थियों से निवेदन है कि वह अपना नाम जल्‍द से जल्‍द लिख कर दें जो कि उन के नाम के साथ हाज़री दिखाई जा सके ।


अगर किसी विद्यार्थी को कुल हाज़री के सम्‍बन्‍ध में शकां है तो वह कक्षा में आकर बात करे ।

सुचना

जल्‍द ही आप को अपने नोटस हिन्‍दी में लिखे मिलेंगे ।

इस के लिए शायद नया ब्‍लाग बनना पडे. ।

उस की सुचना यहां भी दी जाएगी ।

अतः यहां नज़र रखें ।

धन्‍यवाद

Khaljis : 1290-1320

Topic Covered: Ala-ud-din Khiji


Source: Old notes, Classroom lecture framework only, based on A. L Srivastva, V. D. Mahajan, Ishwari Parasad, and R. P. Tripathi.


Suggestive Titles:
Ala-ud-din Khilji and His Administration

Ala-ud-din Khilji and raising of Imperial Administration

Ala-ud-din Khilji as a First Turkish Emperor of India.


Article no: Ala-ud-din (1BA0605)


Julal-ud-din Firoz Shah’s own politeness was his weakness. R. P. Tripathi

R. P. Tripathi: Khailji Revolution took place when Ala-ud-din took over after killing Jalal-ud-din Firoz Shah his uncle who was his father-in-law also.

Ala-ud-din Khalji: 1296-1316

He was supported by Malik Chajju, supporters and Khaljis.
He had a pleader in his brother Ulugh Khan.
He was amir-i-tuzak and Governor of Kara Manikpur.
In 1292, he led an expedition to Malwa and destroyed Bhilsa. He was rewarded with the governorship of Avadh.

Devagiri Dream: (I Turkish attack on South 1292)
Devagiri was in the west and Telagna in the east.
Devagiri was ruled by Rama Chandra Deva – Yadav King
Ala-ud-din attacked Devagiri with 8000 horses in 1294.
It was the first Turkish attack on the South.
Jalaludin was murdered near Kara Manikpur on July 19, 1296.


His Early Difficulties:
He was considered a usurper.
He faced Jalani nobles who were supporters of Jalal-ud-din Firoz Shah.
Ahmad Chap and Malika-i-Jahan and Rukun-ud-din Ibrahim were stronger opposers.
Mongols were on Northwest frontier.


Occupation of Delhi:
There appeared a difference between Arkali and Qadir. It prompted Ala-ud-din to reach Delhi and defeated Qadir Ibrahim. Malka-i-Jahan and Qadir escaped to Multan where Arkali lived estranged. Ala-ud-din was appointed Sultan on October 3, 1296.


He reconciled the public by a lavish distribution of money. He destroyed Arkali, Qadir, Ahamad Chap and Malik-i-Jahan through Ulugh Khan and Hijak.
Then he destroyed those nobles who had joined him.



1.
His Theory of Kingship:
He adopted the ways of Balban. Kingship knows no kinship. Sultan is the most correct person as per the will of God.

He did not allow aristocracy and Ulemas to overpower or interfere which they had been doing in the 13th century.

Ala-ul-Mulk, Kotwal of Delhi and Mughis-ud-din of Bayana were his only advisors.


Domestic policy:
Suppression of Rebellions: and analysis by Ala-ud-din.
1. It was undertaken by New Muslims when they accompanied Nusrat Khan to Ranthambor in 1299.
2. It was lead by Akat Khan, nephew of Ala-ud-din who tried to kill Sultan when he was on his way to Ranthambor.
3. It was undertaken by Amir Umar and Mangu Khan, sons of the sister of Ala-ud-din when Sultan was away to Ranthambor. It was undertaken in Badaun and Awadh.
It was undertaken by Haji Maula a disgruntled officer at Delhi.

The successive eruption of revolts forced Ala-ud-din to analyze the causes and he observed four causes which made his administration weak.
They were:

Weak Spy system.

The wine which promoted friendship.

Social intercourse and intermarriages among nobles which join them against the Sultan.

The wealth with few such who had much leisure.

Four Ordinances:

1. He confiscated many religious endowments and free land grants. He instructed his tax collectors to extract maximum tax and land revenue from such people who enjoy such type of free income. It had the desired result. Gold was left only with high nobles.

2. The wine was prohibited. Its sale was stopped. The Sultan himself stopped taking drinks. But the people continued. So he relaxed some of the strict rules. But its open sale and wine parties were strictly monitored.

3. Spy System was made well based. Every noble and office were spied and Sultan was informed with everything fit for his ears. Sultan used to learn even future plans of the nobles.

4. The social intercourse and intermarriages were brought under the supervision of Sultan. His permission was required for any intermarriage by the nobles.

The Hindus Reduced to Poverty: A view of A. L. Srivastva: The Students of Civil Service should never never and never use this heading. It is only part of the notes and retained because it is personal notes.
Ala-ud-din took special measures to put down Hindus and check the rebellion against his tyranny.

He enhanced the land revenue on produce to ½ (50%). The jaziya, toll tax and excise continued as earlier. The new grazing tax was imposed. Those Hindus, connected with land administration, were severely harmed.

Secondly, he made the rule for traditional evaluators and assessors of State’s share in land for Hindu officials. They were not given any new remuneration. The rulers were strictly imposed by the minister of finance Sharraf Qai.



The Standing Army:
The Need of Army:

Ala-ud-din needed the army to execute his resolutions, to maintain his concept of kingship and despotism, for his territorial aggrandizement and to check Mongol attacks.


The Execution:
He was the first Muslim Sultan to have a well-prepared standing army. He had ariz-i-mamalik (the army minister) to look after recruitment, training and administration of the army. The troops were given arms, clothes and pay of 234 tankas per annum from Centre treasury. There was a system of Dagh and Huliah.
Ala-ud-din is reported to have 4750000 cavalries and proportionally more infantry. He gave personal attention to this whole setup.

Control of the Market:
The army was a great necessity f the administration of Ala-ud-din Khilji, which could strain the resources of the state. He tried to keep the cost of the maintenance of the army low.

He regulated the prices of clothes, food grains etc. he fixed rates of these times. He collected revenue in kind from Khalsah land the lands of vassals and thereby gathered enough grain.

Only authorized merchants were allowed to buy directly from farmers. They were registered with Shahana-i-mandi. They had to sell on fixed rates. Those merchants, who could not afford, were given capital on loan. But whosoever defaulted, he was punished severely.

This check was maintained by Shahana-i-mandi and diwan-i-riyasat. There was a judge sarai-adl. The officers of Doab were bound to give in writing to ensure the execution of regulation. The speculation, black marketing, wrong weighing etc were effectively checked.

The result was that the prices of corn, grain, clothes, horses, slaves etc were kept quite low for a long time.

The scholars believe that such an arrangement was made, maintained and run only in and around Delhi.

It proved also very useful because the benevolent spray of money by Sultan at the time assassin had increased the inflation which thus checked.


The Revenue Policy:
To augment his financial resources he introduced reforms in the revenue system.
1. He abolished numerous religious endowments and grants (grants were religious act expected from Muslims rulers) to Muslims grantees. He confiscated ‘milk’, ‘inam’, ‘idrarat’ and ‘waqfs’.
2. He finished the special privileges of Muqaddams, khuts and Chawkidars who had to pay their own dues also.
3. He increased land revenue to 50% of the produce. (It was probably done for the first time in India and in practice a very huge tax to pay at that rate.) House tax, excise, custom, jaziya, grazing tax were also charged. The scholars had identified 40 taxes which were collected apart from land tax. As per one estimate, a farmer had to pay nearly 80% of his produce in taxes. But even then, the life of the common man was comfortable because the prices did not change for a long time. However, now the new researchers are coming out with newer interpretations.
4. He revived the system of measuring of land and ascertaining the produce. It was the practice which was started during the Muslim rule for the first time. Sher Shah had borrowed heavily from his model. Akbar borrowed his land revenue model from Sher Shah. Hence, it is said, that the changes brought out by Akbar was developed on the model of administration tried by Ala-ud-din.

The above-mentioned methods and measures increased his revenue collection. The burden was equally shared by traders, farmers and landholders. However, Hindus were much effected (A. L. Srivastva).

Centralization of the Administration:
With the help of a strong army, he crushed all rebellion.
He reduced ministers to mere advisors and himself became his own prime minister. His spy system put check on all nobles in provinces. It is said that the nobles had developed a coded language to communicate. However, it is based on conjecture of some historians as no such proof is cited to prove that.
He raised common people with merit to the level of other nobles thereby making elite class of nobles of higher tribes insignificant (R. P. Tripathi).
With such measures, he established his strong despotic rule.

Estimate:
Two View: Elphinstone and V. A. Smith:
Elphinstone:
"His reign was glorious … in spite of some oppression."


"…. a successful monarch and exhibited just exercise of his power."


V. A. Smith:
V. A. Smith gives a totally opposite view.
"Ala-ud-din: a tyrannical despot, disgraceful in many respect."

However, a general estimate is as follows:
He is universally accepted as a brave soldier and general.
He is remembered for his administration.
He was first to have a standing army;
First to reorganize revenue system;
First to establish market control;
First to cross Vindhyachal;
First to given uniform administration under Muslim rule;
And first to turn down the advice and interference of nobles and Ulemas.

He is called the first Turkish emperor of India, because he extended his sway all over India and took concrete measures to check the spasmodic attacks of Mongols and sterile Delhi borders from them.

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