Monday, September 19, 2005

Italy Unification: Revision and Summary Chart


Revision and Summary Chart
Five Stages of Unification of Italy

Special Note: The Unification of Italy is an important question. It has been asked again and again in the final examination. However, it is one question which is very long. A complete answer is given in another posting. However, here, a very brief outline of the unification of Italy is given. I hope that intelligent students may make good use of this summary. Those who just believe in passing the examination may also find it useful.


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First Stage and the Contribution of Mazzini:


Mazzini led the armed aggression against the Austrian occupation of Italian states. He failed to achieve any result. Mazzini tried to raise the awareness about revolution and the need for a united Italy among the Italians through their writing. They tried to convince the Italians that they were a nation and the country was not a geographical expression. Mazzini made every possible effort to raise the feelings of nationalism among the Italians through his organization Young Italy. He had great faith in the energy of the youth of Italian and believed that the youth of Italy would bring about the unification of Italy.
The main results achieved in the first stage were two. The problem of lack of awareness of nationalism was ended. A dilemma over the number of ideologies was settled in favour of constitutional monarchy. Mazzini succeeded in giving a vision of a nation to the Italians but failed to convince them for his plan of a Republic of Italy.

Second Stage Of Unification And Role Of Cavour
The second stage can be identified with the achievements of Cavour. He first made Sardinia strong militarily and economically. Then he earned the friendship of the main powers of Europe by helping them in Cremia war. He discredited Austria in the Paris Conference and brought the problem of the Italian nation before the world with the help of France. He very astutely removed Austria out of Italy. As the main achievement at this stage Central Italy, excluding the Papal states were united into one country under the headship of the king of Sardinia. Modena, Parma, Tuscany, and Romagna were merged with Italy.

The Third Stage of Unification and Role of GaribaldiThe third stage is identified with the patriotism of Garibaldi and union of Naples and Sicily with Central Italy under the leadership of Sardinia. With the help of his Red Shirts army, Garibaldi won Sicily in 1860. By September 1860, he occupied Naples. In the meantime, Victor Emmanuel under the advice of Cavour occupied the Papal States leaving Papal control over Rome untouched. He also occupied Capua and Gaeta, the part of Naples kingdom. On November 7, 1860, Garibaldi handed over the possession of rest of Naples and whole of Sicily to Victor Emmanuel the King of Sardinia as a true patriot for the realizing the dream of unification of Italy.
Fourth Stage Of Unification and Role of Victor Emmanuel
Prussia became the cause of unification of Italy with the remaining of her areas that had left out. A war began between Austria and Prussia in 1866. In the war, Victor Emmanuel II participated with Prussia. Italy was defeated in this war but Prussia defeated Austria. The treaty of Prague was signed between Prussia and Austria in 1866. According to the terms of the treaty, defeated Austria transferred Venetia to Italy.
Fifth Stage: Annexation of Rome
The French army was protecting the territories of Rome. Italy did not find it conducive to pick a fight with France. However, Italy was quite fortunate to get a chance. In 1870, a war began between France and Prussia, which is famous as the Franco-Prussian war. Napoleon III was compelled by circumstances to call back the French army from Rome in order to face Prussian assault. Victor Emmanuel exploited the opportunity and attacked Rome. He soon occupied Rome. After a plebiscite, it was merged with the rest of Italy. Rome was made the capital of Italy in place of Turin. Pope was permitted to retain his area in Rome. Thus the unification of Italy was realized by the contribution of Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel.


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Nationalism in Italy (Descriptive and Refresher Type) for B. A. III


Nationalism in Italy

Question. IX-1-12: What obstacles stood in the way of the unification of Italy and how were they removed?
Or
Discuss the role Cavour, Garibaldi, and Mazzini in the Unification of Italy.
Discuss the different stages in the unification of Italy.
Or
Briefly, describe the stages by which the unification of Italy was brought about with special reference to the role of King Victor Emmanuel II and his minister Cavour.





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Answer: - There was not only political disunity among the Italians but they practised distinct social and cultural viewpoints. Hence, there were difficult hurdles on the path to unification. Brief descriptions of such difficulties are as follows.
The Austrian empire: - The biggest and immediate hurdle on the path of the unification of Italy was the Austrian Empire. The state of Lombardy and Venetia, which were the part of Italy, was in the possession of Austria. Italy could never think of unification if Austria was not moved out of those states. Austria could only be removed with a huge and powerful army and the support of foreign powers and Italy did not have either of them.
Reactionary rulers: The monarchical form of governments were reigning in different states of Italy. Their rulers believed in the divine rights of kingship. If the revolted had erupted in any of such state after 1815, the Austrian chancellor Metternich had helped the rulers of those states to crush the revolt. The reactionary rule of Metternich was also a big hurdle on the way to unification.
The various plans for unification: A major difficulty in achieving unification was the prevalence of a variety of viewpoints among Italians on the issue of unification of Italy. Like, (i) the Republicans desired to establish the Republic of Italy. The main proponent of this viewpoint was Mazzini. (ii) Another group of patriots was the votary of a Federation headed by a Pope. Geoberti was their leader. (iii) There were Italians who felt strongly for a constitutional monarchy. They wanted to see the king Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia as the Emperor of a unified Italy under a constitutional monarchy. Hence, there was a lack of a common vision for Italians on the question of ideology, which they might collectively adopt to unite their country. Otherwise, it was not possible to unify Italy.
Lack of national awakening: There was a lack of national awakening among the Italians due to their recent past. The enslavement for a number of centuries had made them reconcile with their plight, which the providence had made them suffer. Unfortunately, divergent social traditions and religious trends had developed in the meantime. Chancellor Metternich had very confidently declared thus: " In Italy, provinces are against provinces, towns against towns, families against families and men against men." He had rightly portrayed the situation which Italian patriots were finding quite difficult to salvage.
Papal States: The Pope was ruling a large part of Middle Italy. The papal state separated North Italy from South Italy. Hence, as long as, Pope was ruling, Italy could never have been united.

First Stage Of Unification and Role Of Mazzini

The national awareness spread among the Italians in the first stage. The Vienna Congress of 1815 had mauled the feelings of the Italian patriots. The leaders at the Vienna Congress had treated Italy as a pawn to fulfil their personal interests. Italy was again reduced to a geographical expression. The Italians had courageously tried to get rid of the reactionary rulers during the revolution of 1820, 1821 and 1832, but the absolutist monarchs were well supported by the reactionary Metternich. However, in 1848, Metternich was forced to quit after a revolution in Austria. It was soon followed by the emergence of a struggle for freedom and unification in Italy and it soon acquired momentum.


Many scholars and political writers like Mazzini tried to raise awareness about revolution and the need for a united Italy among the Italians through their writing. They tried to convince the Italians that they were a nation and the country was not a geographical expression. Mazzini made every possible effort to raise the feelings of nationalism among the Italians through his organization Young Italy. He had great faith in the energy of the youth of Italian and believed that the youth of Italy would bring about the unification of Italy. He made an unsuccessful armed attempt at removing Austria physically but failed. He had the dream of creating the Republic of Italy after removing Austria out of Italy.


During this stage, apart from maturing of the feeling of nationalism, another alternative of a constitutional monarchy for a unified Italy also acquired attention along with other plans of unification. The reason for the popularity of this ideology was the two lessons learned from the failure of the revolution of 1848 in which Mazzini played a major role. One lesson was that Italy could not be unified under the rule of the Pope. The second lesson was that a Republican solution was not useful as unification in the form of a Republic by making a federation of Italy was not possible. Hence, the results achieved in the first stage were two.
a. The problem of lack of awareness of nationalism was ended.
b. A dilemma over the number of ideologies was settled in favour of constitutional monarchy.

Second Stage Of Unification And Role Of Cavour

The Analysis Of The Problem By Cavour: - Cavour, was the Prime Minister of the king of Piedmont-Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel. He had the ability to foresee problems and could timely suggest and execute befitting measures to solve them. He had analysed that Austria was the only obstruction to the unification of Italy. Piedmont-Sardinia could manage this factor only by acquiring befitting strength. For that, a strong army and a healthy economy were the only solutions. In addition to that, the support and help of another European power were also essential. First, he took steps to make his fellow citizens prosperous and wealthy. For that he adopted policies like, (i) the financial assistance were extended for the promotion of industry; (ii) the railway network was spread over a wide area; (iii) the education was given special attention; (iv) the steps were taken to further promote the agriculture and (v) the exports were promoted.
Sardinia Became Strong: - Sardinia soon emerged as a wealthy and prosperous nation under his supervision. Cavour increased the strength of the military. He raised an army of a well-disciplined and fully armed ninety thousand soldiers. The Italian patriots shifted their affiliations to Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II when they found them emerging strong.
A Need Of A Friend: - Cavour was of the firm belief that Austria could only be removed with the assistance of a powerful ally. Hence, he was in search of a dependable powerful country. Cavour planned for a situation, wherein, he would get an opportunity to narrate the plight of Italy at the hands of Austria before the assembly of the European nations and he would have found a sympathetic audience. Simultaneously, he also planned for getting a hidden assurance of military assistance against Austria. Cavour was confident that in an event of the first attack by Austria, he would manage to project Sardinia as an innocent victim of Austrian unwarranted aggression and thus he would manage to receive more help from other European powers.

He was not only able to formulate a sound political plan; rather he also managed to implement it with great success.

Getting Sympathy Of England And France: - Cavour got his first opportunity to win over the sympathies of European countries in 1856. He became a participant in Crimea war from the side of France and England. He dispatched seventeen thousand soldiers without putting any terms and conditions for his participation, to the battlegrounds of Crimea. By adopting this policy, he wanted to project himself as a friend of England and France on international political forums. In this manner, it was an astute political manoeuvre of great significance. His soldiers fought courageously. It raised the prestige of Sardinia. England and France started feeling indebted to the sacrifices of Sardinian soldiers. He had remarked to his soldiers " Out of this mud, Italy will be made."
Sardinia in Paris: - The Crimean war ended in 1856 by the treaty of Paris. Sardinia was also invited to the peace conference at Paris as a victorious ally. At the Peace Conference of Paris, Sardinia was counted equal to leading nations of Europe like France, England, Austria, Turkey, Prussia, and Russia in spite of the strong objection of Austria. In the conference, Cavour blasted Austria for her oppressive ways in Italy. He convinced the participants that the situation in Italy was miserable due to Austrian actions. France and Britain criticised and discredited Austria for her actions in Italy. Cavour achieved his goal.
Achievement at Paris Conference: - The support earned in the conference was a moral victory of Cavour. France and England were inclined towards Sardinia. Cavour knew that England would not help Austria because of her own national interests. Hence, Cavour went all out to increase the intimacy with France and pursued her to contribute in Sardinian ventures.
Secret Treaty Between Napoleon III And Cavour: - On July 21, 1858, a secret meeting between Emperor Napoleon III and Prime Minister Cavour took place at Polembieres, a place near the Sardinian boarder. It was decided that whenever Austria would attack Sardinia, France would help Sardinia in the war and Austria would be removed from Lombardy and Venetia. Italy was to be organised into one country excluding the areas of the Papal States and Naples. In return for her help, France would be given Nice and Savoy. In order to further strengthen the friendship between Sardinia and France, the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel II, named Clothilde, a lass of 15 years, would be married to a cousin of Napoleon III, named Jerome Bonaparte(Note: A 2 marks question which has appeared again and again and the students generally do not find this answer), a man of 35 years. It was also planned in that secret parlays, that war would be started and managed in such a manner that Austria would be made to become an aggressor and Sardinia would be shown as fighting in self-defence.
Austria's Ultimatum to Sardinia: - Cavour stepped up his diplomatic activities. He raised the customs duties of imports from Austria and started publishing provocative anti-Austrian articles in regular newspapers. He activated the military preparations. He also staged the revolts in the Italian territories, which were under the Austrian occupation. The tension increased. Finally, Sardinia received an ultimatum from Austria. It was an agitated and aggressive warning by the `War Party of Austria', which asked for the disarmament of Sardinian soldiers within three days or they would attack.
Cavour was exulted and his happiness knew no bound. He joyously exclaimed, "The die is cast and we have made history." He got what he desired. Austria had declared herself an aggressor. Cavour wanted her to attack because it fulfilled the condition on which France had committed herself to help the Turin government of Piedmont-Sardinia.
Austro-Sardinian War: - Sardinia did not give any reply to the ultimatum by Austria. Consequently, the Austrian army invaded the Piedmont territory in April 1859. Napoleon, bound by his commitments of Plombieres, came to help Sardinian efforts. The joint army of France and Sardinia defeated the Austrian army, first on June 4, 1859, at Magenta and then at Solferino on June 24, 1859.


Sardinia conquered Lombardy in the battle of Solferino. Emmanuel led his victory march to Milan, the capital of Lombardy. The dominance of Sardinia was now established in Italy. Many states, like, Romagna, Modena, Parma and Tuscany revolting against their ruling dynasties on learning about the freedom of Lombardy from the clutches of Austria. Now it appeared to Napoleon III that a unified Italy under Sardinia would emerge as a strong united country and a nation. He became apprehensive. He had desired an independent Italy but never wanted her to emerge as a united nation as that could threaten the security of France. On the other hand, Roman Catholics of France were strongly against the continuation of Austria-Sardinian war. Another possibility, of Prussia helping Austria, also emerged and threatened to make the situation more complex. Austrian military was still strong. Napoleon was not ready to face a combined military force of Austria and Prussia and nor was he in a position to afford to face their combined might.
A Halt Sounded By Napoleon III: - Napoleon III declared an end to his participation and withdrew from the war owing to reasons as explained above. He signed a truce under the treaty of Villafranca with Austria in July 1859 without taking into confidence Victor Emmanuel or Cavour. Some of the major terms of the treaty were as follows.
i. The occupation of Lombardy by Sardinia was to be recognized.
ii. Venetia was to be left with Austria.
iii. The rulers of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena were to be restored to their lost thrones.
iv. A league was to be established under the leadership of Pope.
Resignation of Cavour: - Cavour recommended to his emperor to continue the pursuit of war and overlook the treaty. The Emperor turned down his suggestion and signed the treaty. A frustrated and annoyed Cavour tendered his resignation. However, just after six months, he again became the Prime Minister of Sardinia in January 1860.
A Big Bargain: - Now Cavour, again, bargained with Napoleon III that, if Central Italy were permitted to merge with the kingdom of Sardinia, Nice and Savoy would be transferred to France. Consequently, it was decided to conduct a plebiscite in the Central Italian Sates. The plebiscite took place and the public of Modena, Parma, Tuscany, and Romagna voted for their merger in the Kingdom of Sardinia. The result of plebiscite was implemented with full sincerity. The four provinces were merged with Sardinia. In this manner, all North Italy was united into one single nation excluding Venetia. It completed the second stage of Italian unification. Nice and Savoy were transferred to France.
For this, Cavour was highly criticized. There was a great protest in England also. The English people did not relish the expansion of French territories. The most staunch patriot and national leader of Italy, Garibaldi, was a native of Nice. He cried to Cavour, " You have made me a foreigner in the land of my birth."
The Third Stage of Unification and Role of Garibaldi
Out of three provinces of Venetia, Papal States, and Naples, the struggle first started in Naples. Sicily was a part of Naples. Francis II, its ruler, was from the Bourbon dynasty of France. He was an absolutist and a reactionary monarch. Garibaldi was the main leader during the third stage, which emancipated the people of Sicily from the oppression of Francis II.
Revolution in Sicily: - The people of Sicily revolted against Francis II under the leadership of Crispy in 1860. Crispy sought the help of Garibaldi. During those years, Garibaldi was living on the island of Caprers of Sardinia.
Expedition Of One Thousand: - Garibaldi landed on the island of Sicily along with his `Red Shirts', `One Thousand Soldiers' on May 11, 1860. Soon all the revolutionaries rallied under the flag of Garibaldi.
Garibaldi Occupies Sicily: - Francis II had stationed twenty-four thousand soldiers on the island of Sicily. However, the soldiers of Garibaldi were more motivated. He defeated the army of Naples very badly in a number of battles and brought the whole Sicily under the occupation of Garibaldi within two months. Garibaldi started ruling Sicily. He also made a declaration that he was ruling Sicily only as a representative of Emperor Victor Emmanuel II.
Struggle in Naples: - After Sicily, came the turn of Naples. Garibaldi marched over Naples after crossing the sea on August 19, 1860. The king of Naples had an army of one-lakh soldiers. However, he lacked confidence. Hence, Garibaldi got an easy success. The king Francis II escaped from Naples to Gaeta, a nearby territory, on September 6, 1860. The next day, the whole of Naples rallied under the flag of Garibaldi.
Plans to Attack Rome: - After conquering Naples, Garibaldi started planning to attack Rome. The French army was protecting Rome. It was obvious, in the event of an attack on Rome; the Red Shirts of Garibaldi had to fight the French forces. It could have escalated into a war between France and Sardinia. There was every possibility, that some European powers would like to join in to rescue the Pope. In any of such a situation, all the achievements of Cavour would have ruined to dust.
Farsightedness of Cavour: - Cavour wanted to keep France away from Italy. It could only be made possible if the territories of Rome were secured and permitted no chance to France to act as a defender. Cavour also knew that if he merged the Papal States, excluding Rome, with Sardinia, with the consent of the people of those areas, Napoleon III would raise no objection. Cavour took every next step with the perfection of an astute diplomat. He declared his doctrine thus: "Italy must be saved from foreigners, evil principles and madmen." To restrain Garibaldi, was the immediate need of the hour. To checkmate Garibaldi factor, a patriot of great following behind him, Cavour asked Victor Emmanuel to attack the surrounding areas of Rome before Garibaldi initiated the attack. The Sardinian Emperor was soon able to occupy Umbria and Marches, the territories of Papal States. However, he remained away from Rome proper. Garibaldi dropped the idea of attacking Rome when he found that Emmanuel was already doing that job.
Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi in Naples: - Capua and Gaeta, part of Naples, were still under the possession of Francis II. Victor Emmanuel II defeated him on November 2, 1860, and occupied those areas. After that, Garibaldi surrendered himself to Victor Emmanuel. Both of them entered Naples in a victory march on November 7, 1860. Garibaldi had readily accepted Emperor Victor Emmanuel as the ruler of Naples. The Emperor was pleased to award Garibaldi with high honours and prizes but Garibaldi politely declined. He was a sincere patriot. His only desire was to accomplish the unification of Italy. He borrowed some money from his friends, bought a bag of seeds for cultivation, and left for Caprera Island to spend his rest of life there as a simple farmer. Hence, the third stage reached its culmination by ending the reactionary rule.

Fourth Stage Of Unification and Role of Victor Emmanuel

By then, only Rome and Venetia had remained outside united Italy. Venetia was under the rule of Austria. Pope was occupying Rome.
Annexation of Venetia: - Prussia became the cause of unification of Italy with the remaining of her areas that had left out. A war began between Austria and Prussia in 1866. In the war, Victor Emmanuel II participated with Prussia. Italy was defeated in this war but Prussia defeated Austria. The treaty of Prague was signed between Prussia and Austria in 1866. According to the terms of the treaty, defeated Austria transferred Venetia to Italy. Fisher, the historian, comments, " The prize of Venetia was won on the field of Sadowa by the formidable Prussia army." Now, only Rome had remained outside Italy.
Fifth Stage:
Annexation Of Rome: - The French army was protecting the territories of Rome. Italy did not find it conducive to pick a fight with France. However, Italy was quite fortunate to get a chance. In 1870, a war began between France and Prussia, which is famous as the Franco-Prussian war. Napoleon III was compelled by circumstances to call back the French army from Rome in order to face Prussian assault. Victor Emmanuel exploited the opportunity and attacked Rome. He soon occupied Rome. After a plebiscite, it was merged with the rest of Italy. Rome was made the capital of Italy in place of Turin. Pope was permitted to retain his area in Rome. In 1871, by the law of Papal Guarantee, the limits of his rights were specified. Thus, another major problem, that of a clash between the jurisdictions of the Pope and the king, was solved. It was a great problem because the Roman Catholics regarded Rome as their spiritual capital and Pope, its ruler. Hence, the 1871 Act solved that legal problem also.


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Wednesday, September 14, 2005

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (Descriptive-Refresher Type for B.A.III)


Industrial Revolution in Europe

Question VII-1-10: Study the progress of the Industrial Revolution in Europe.
Or
What were the effects Industrial changes on the economic, social, political and intellectual life of the people?





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Answer: At the beginning of the eighteenth century, scientific discoveries and technological changes ushered into a new era of machines. With new discoveries and inventions, the machine-based industry replaced the cottage industry. The scene of production shifted from cottage industry to factories where the production was done on a large scale. In this way, in the industrial field, a new form of activity emerged. In Marxian terminology, a new ' relation of Production' set in. The new form of activity is termed as the Industrial Revolution. This revolution first took place in England and then gradually spread over all over the world.
The major changes, which brought up the industrial revolution were-
(i) power-driven machines replaced manual machines, driven by muscular power of man or animal in most of the production activities.
(ii) In the beginning, steam power was widely used to run the machines. Afterwards, the use of electricity and petroleum fuel became the vital ingredients to run the machines.
(iii) Steel was another vital material in making machines. Hence, numerous iron mills were erected.
(iv) Excessive investment of capital was needed and made.
(v) The nature of agricultural production also underwent changes. The smallholdings were merged to form large landholdings. The new and more and more agricultural machinery were used for agricultural production.
(vi) Steam-powered rail engines and marine ships revolutionize transportation.
(vii) The large-scale production and many alternative modes of transportation and communication facilitated continuous international trade.

PROGRESS OF THE REVOLUTION

The following inventions promoted Industrial Revolution: -

Flying Shuttle: - John Kay invented flying shuttle in 1733. This device increased the speed of weaving cloth of wider width.

Spinning Jenny: - Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny machine in 1765. It had eight spindles and could produce goods equivalent to the working capacity of eight workers at one time. It could spin fine yarn though of less strength.

Water Frame: - Archwright, a barber, invented Water Frame in 1769. It was engined by waterpower. It could weave strong cloth.

Mule: - Samuel Compton invented mule in 1799. It combined the jobs done by Flying Shuttle and Water Frame in one system in a machine. It worked on hydel power. It spun a fine and strong yarn.
Powerloom: - Cartwright invented power loom in 1785. It worked on steam power. It revolutionized the textile industry. The cloth was woven at a greater speed in large quantities.

Cotton Gin: - Vaitin, an American, invented Cotton Gin in 1793. The cotton fibre could be detached from the cotton flowers by this machine at a higher speed.

Cylinder Printing: - The Cylinder Printing was invented by the end of the eighteenth century. It mechanized the washing and printing of the cloth.

Steam Engine: - Newcome was the first person to develop the Steam Engines. James Watt, whose name is more recognized with Steam Engine, made a modification in an earlier model to make it more efficient.

Revolution in Iron and Coal Industries: - As the Industrial Revolution progressed, the demand for iron also increased. Earlier, the machines, especially their frame, were made of wood. Now the machines were made of iron and it became the main material to manufacture the machines.

Safety Lamp: Sir Humphry Devy invented Safety Lamp in 1815, which increased the safety of the life of miners in deep mining. It made the mining bit easier.

Revolution in Construction of Roads: - The improved means of transport were the most determinant factors in the progress of industry. Swedish engineer used rubbles to lay roads which turned out be a more useful way to get durable roads.

Revolution in Digging of Canals: - The Canals provided the second alternative to roads for transport of coal and iron over a longer distance in a profitable manner. The first canal for such a purpose was constructed under the supervision of the Engineer Bradley in England. It flowed from Bristly to Manchester. A

Locomotive: - George Stevenson constructed the first Locomotive, which was powered by steam. The first railway line was laid between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830. This revolutionized travel and transportation.

EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Industrial Revolution had touched every aspect of British life. It turned an agriculture-dominated country into an industrial nation. The main effects of the Industrial Revolution are as follows: -
I ECONOMIC EFFECTS

Increase in National Income: - England emerged as the world power as a result of the Industrial Revolution. She established trade relations with other countries. The products of her factories were well received in the foreign markets. This increased the national income of England.

Decline of Cottage industry: - The Industrial Revolution became the cause of inventions of such machines, which could not be installed in the cottage industry. It became the cause for the construction of numerous factories all over the country. Such a trend completely killed the cottage industry.

Large Supply of Commodities at Cheaper Rates: - The invention and extensive use of machines made available large quantities of commodities, which could be bought at cheaper rates.'

Increase in Unemployment: - The most negative effect of the Industrial Revolution was that it killed the cottage industry and handicrafts which were a secondary source of earning and in many cases the primary source of earning daily meals in many households. A single machine could perform the job of a number of workers in lesser time. As a result, the artisans who depended on the skills of their hands became unemployed and they were in large numbers. Similarly, it left numerous agricultural workers unemployed.

Rise of New Classes: - The Industrial Revolution gave birth to two new socio-economic classes- the workers class (proletariat) and the capitalist class. The Capitalist managed to get more work out of the workers at lesser wages. As a result, the poor became poorer and the capital got concentrated in the hands of a smaller number of capitalists. A frequently used sentence to explain this effect is, " The Industrial Revolution made the rich richer and the poor poorer."

II SOCIAL EFFECTS

Increase in the Number of Landless Workers: - The Industrial Revolution changed the social structure of England when the small farmers and small landholders were compelled by the circumstances to sell off their landed properties and seek employment in factories as daily wagers. Hence, the number of landless labourers increased. It is an apt remark that " England was changed from a granary to a workshop."

Artisans became Laborers: - By industrialization, large-scale production of durable commodities was being achieved at a very lesser price and in lesser time. Hence the cloth of handlooms, worked by hands, went out of demand. Thus the artisans, who worked with their hands, were compelled to seek employment as daily labourers in factories.

Exploitation of Women and Small Children: - The factories preferred to employ women and minor children at lower wages for a longer period. They were made to work for forced labour also. The factory systems were highly injurious to the health of women and young children.

Bad Effects on the Health of the Laborers: - The working condition in a factory was unhealthy and devoid of a good working environment. They lived in a polluted atmosphere created by factories.

III POLITICAL EFFECTS

Reforms of Parliament: - The new industrial cities created the need for new laws and reforms. Hence, in the nineteenth century, numerous constitutional reform acts were introduced in Parliament.

Factory Acts: - The Factory Acts were passed to reform the condition of labourers and to provide them with the security of life.

Establishment of Trade Unions: - Trade Unions were organised to save the labourers from the exploitation by the Capitalists.

Birth of New Principles: - The Labor Welfare Centers were being established to find solutions for rising poverty among the labourers. In such a situation, the philosophies of Socialism and Communism started emerging.

National and International understanding: - The means of transport and communication had developed tremendously under the revolutionary impact of the Industrial Revolution. As a result, different nations developed intimate national interests and friendly relations, which created a new political international understanding and equations.

Birth of Colonialism: - With extensive developments in industrialization, the surplus goods were being produced at a large scale. There was an intensive need to find a market for this surplus production. Such a situation gave birth to colonialism.

In brief, it can be concluded that the Industrial Revolution has an important place in the history of humanity. It not only changed England; it had completely transformed every setup in the world. In the words of Ramsay Muir, " The Industrial Revolution was a mighty and silent upheaval."

Word Count: 1451



Impact of the French Revolution, 1789


Question VI-2-9: Discuss the immediate and permanent results and achievements of the French Revolution.
Or
What was the legacy of the French Revolution of France, Europe and the World?
Or
Give a critical account of the permanent effects of the French Revolution of 1789 on Europe.
Or
Describe the permanent political and social changes in the life of France resulting from the French Revolution.



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Answer: The French Revolution is the greatest event of the modern period. It influenced the whole of human society. The whole world received the message of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The welfare of the common man became the paramount priority and required changes were made in their constitution by the different countries. A brief description of the effects of the French Revolution is as per the followings.
I. Effect on France
There is no doubt that the French Revolution had far-reaching implication for the world. However, it had influenced France the most. The Revolution had left following social, economic and political effects on France.
France – The Representative of Humanity: - France became the representative of humanity. It gave to the world of humanity three main important messages of Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality. However, it paved the way for Republican governments for the rest of humanity when it became successful in France.
The Empire of France became the French Nation: - The French nation was born because of the French Revolution. Since then, there was one France in place of different regions. The thirty million French (three crores) now had the equality of status as a citizen of a nation and equality before the law for all of them. They were patriots of their nation in place of loyalty to any dynasty.
End of Despotic Rule: - Before the French Revolution, the Bourbon family was ruling over France. The rulers of this dynasty believed in the theory of the divine right of kingship. They ruled as per their own wishes and whims. The French Revolution destroyed their very existence. It established a constitutional form of government and republic in France. They made the French people their own ruler.
Written Constitution: - France got her first written constitution due to the French Revolution. It was also the first written constitution of the European continent. It gave the right of franchise to the citizen of France. There were some shortcomings in the constitution but it had ushered in a new era in France.
Declaration of Human Rights: - The main result of the French Revolution was that the French people acquired many human rights. They were given the right to equality, freedom of expression, etc. They were free to organize their associations. They got the right to property. They got the equality before the law. They could object to illegal actions of the government officials.
Abolition of Feudalism: - The Feudal system ended due to the French Revolution. With the French Revolution, the difference between the privileged and non-privileged class ended. It was an end of the old despotic system.
Decrease in the influence of the Church: - The influence of the high priests on the society of France ended. The priests took oath on the new constitution to maintain their loyalty to the French nation. The state became the owner of the wealth of the church. The priest started receiving a salary from the state. On the other hand, the French people started adopting a rational attitude in place of the blind faith based on religious affiliations.
Administrative Changes: - Numerous changes were made in the administrative structure of France due to the French Revolution. A single code of law was implemented in the whole of France and it was also codified. The whole of the country was divided into 83 departments for the administrative purpose. The principle of election was adopted in the administrative at the required places in the administration.
Re-Organisation of the Judicial System: The National Convention introduced a common judicial system for the whole of France. The penal code was made soft and same types of punishments were introduced for the similar type of crimes committed by any person without any discrimination. The judicial system was made independent of the executive and legislator. The 'Jury System' was introduced to try criminal cases.
Public Works: - Many public welfare works were undertaken due to the French Revolution. New roads and canals were constructed. New dams and bridges were built. The land was reclaimed from marshes for farming. The economic infrastructure was improved to promote trade. The large landholdings of the lords were sold to farmers at cheaper rates. Agriculture was modernized. Such improvements brought amazing changes in the economic strength of France.
Changes in the Conditions of Farmers: - The condition of farmers improved due to the French Revolution. The revolution ended the feudal system, which liberated the farmers from the burden of unnecessary taxes. They did not have to pay the taxes to the landlords and tithes (the religious tax) to the church.
Cultural Effects: - France made numerous achievements in the field of art, science, and literature due to the French Revolution. Numerous schools, colleges, universities, and academies were opened in the country. The special attention was paid to art, literature, science, mathematics, technology, and physical training in the field of education.
II. Effect on England
The immediate effects of the Revolution on England were as per the followings.
Effect on Reform Movements: - Pit, the Younger, the Prime Minister of England in 1789, praised and welcomed the events of the French Revolution when it started in May 1789. When the Britishers watched the bloodshed which followed the revolution, they turned against it. However, the main message of liberty, fraternity and equality arrested the attention of the British. They started various movements for social and political reforms.
Effect on British Politics: The social reform movements which started as a result of the French Revolution divided the Whig party. The division due to ideas of the French Revolution weakened the Whig party of Britain.
Economic Crises: It led to Financial crises in Britain. Britain started supporting the anti-revolution parties. It also extended them the monetary help. Britain also suffered due to the economic blocked launched by Napoleon. It increased her financial liabilities and her citizens were made to suffer the load of extra taxes.
Influence on Ireland: The success of the French Revolution encouraged the revolutionaries of Ireland. They increased their revolutionary activities. The British government was forced to adopt oppressive measures in Ireland.
Effect on Literature: The issue of the French Revolution became the subject matter of the English poets, essayists and political commentators.
Effect on Europe
1). Responses and Reactions: Russia, Spain, Austria and Turkey remained untouched by the French Revolution. In Poland and Ireland, the French Revolution encouraged revolutionary activities. The Revolution also influenced the middle class of Germany and Italy.
2). A phase of new Wars: The rising tide of revolution in different countries became the cause of fear among the autocrat rulers. They joined to check the spread of the revolution. It pushed Europe in a spate of anti-revolutionary wars.
3). Rise of Concert of Europe: After defeating Napoleon, the European nations organised the Concert of Europe in 1815. It aimed at maintaining the status quo and reinstatement of European royal families. It was also accompanied by the reactionary policies against the revolutionary movements in European countries.
Permanent Effects
Spirit of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity: The main gift of the French Revolution was the ideas of Equality, Fraternity and Equality. It ended the dominance of the theory of the divine right of kingship. It gave a deathblow to social status by birth. It became the cause of the rise of nationalism.
Rise of nationalism: The French Revolution infused the sense of nationalism among the people of France. The people of France faced the attack of a foreign power as one nation and inculcated the feeling of nationalism among them. It was soon followed by a similar rise in feelings of nationalism in other countries.
Growth of Democratic Ideas: The French Revolution encouraged the rule of law, the politics of census and democratic rule.
Rise of Internationalism: The French Revolution gave rise to the need for coming together at the international level in order to face a common danger. It emerged in the form of Concert of Europe. It started an era of international bodies. The origin of UN (UNO) is also traced to Concert of Europe.

Total Word Count: 1342


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Causes of the French Revolution


Causes of the French Revolution

Question VI-1-8: Describe the main effects of the French Revolution.
Or
"The Revolution of 1789 was the outcome of realities, but it cannot be denied that without the help of enlightenment, it could not have arisen." Discuss.
Or
"The Revolution of 1789 was the outcome of Realities, it can not be denied that without the help of enlightenment it could have not risen." Discuss.
Or
Discuss the main causes responsible for the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1789.
Or
What were the main causes of the French Revolution of 1789?





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Answer: - In May 1789, Louis XVI had called a session of Estate General to get approval for the reforms to restore the financial order and check the anger which was rising due to hunger. Within three months, a new setup replaced the earlier one and in the next three years, a totally new setup replaced the monarchical form of governance. Louis XVI was removed. The hunger, new ideas and Estate General were the causes which were seen on the surface of the upheaval. The main reasons lay deep below in the history of France and numerous circumstances, which are discussed as per the followings.

Political Causes
1. Shortcomings of Old Regime: - The contemporary regime had lost it relevance.
It had the following shortcomings: -

Arbitrariness of the Kings: - The rulers of France of Bourbon family from Louis XIV to Louis XVI were despots. The main machinery of their operation was ‘Letter de Cachet’. There was no freedom of life and provision for legal remedy.
Weakness of the Local Administration and Total Confusion: - The local administration was full of defects. Originally, France was divided into 40 divisions headed by governors. Since the days of Henry IV, the whole of France was divided among the Intendants who were 36 in numbers. There was 12 judicial court of high court level covering the main forty divisions. The jurisdictions of all such administrative division overlapped. In short, there was total confusion in the government.
Incompetence and Corruption in Administration: - The corruption was prevalent in the whole of the administration. The important posts were sold to the highest bidder. There were no representative bodies to check the functioning of such posts. If there were some representative bodies, they have become redundant. The municipalities and the corporations differed in their way of working for different cities.
Centralization of Powers: - The powers were totally concentrated in the hands of the king. The forty posts of governors were mainly sold. The main administration was in the hands of Intendants who were only answerable to the king. Their powers were practically unrestricted. All the other representative bodies had become either redundant or non-existent.
Defective Organisation of Judiciary: - The judicial administration was also confusing and complex. There were seventeen courts of law in France. There was no universal law. There was no book for the judges for their guidance. The different laws were in force in different areas. There was an overlapping of the jurisdictions of the courts.
Restlessness in the Army: - The dissatisfaction among the soldiers had played an important role in the rise of the revolution. They were sulking under the strict discipline of incompetent higher military officers. They were not given good food and adequate salary. They were highly dissatisfied with the rules of promotion. The people also knew about the prevailing dissatisfaction of the soldiers. They were confident they would side with the people if they rose in revolt against the royal administration.
The weak personality of Louis XVI: - Louis XVI became the ruler of France in 1774. He was fearful and not confident of himself at the time of sitting on the throne. He was incapable of facing the prevailing problems and not a farsighted man. He evaded his responsibilities by engaging himself in his hobby of making locks and shootings deer from the window of his palace. He was easily influenced by others but not bold enough to take the decision. The people got frustrated and revolted against him.
The Evil Influence of Queen Mari Antoinette: - Queen Mari Antoinette was the wife of Louis XVI and daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria. However, the French people did not like her and always referred to her as ‘Austrian Lady’ in contempt. Mari Antoinette was extravagant and further defamed herself in France by her behaviour. She had complete control over Louis XVI. She interfered in the administration of France.
Extravagance of French Kings: - The despotic kings of France were extravagant also. They lived a life of untold luxury. The king was lost in the splendour of Versailles leaving the administration of empire in the hands of sycophants. The overspending had increased during the reign of Louis XV and XVI. This had pushed France into debt.
Lack of Representative Bodies: - There was no representative legislative body. Earlier, Estate General was such a representative body in France but it was never convened after 1614. The French people cherished the working of the British Parliament. They wanted a similar representative body in their country also. They wanted to dismantle the existing setup and this is what the revolution was all about.

II. Social Causes
The French society was mainly divided into three sections – Nobles, Clergy and the Commoners. The nobles and the clergy enjoyed special rights given to them by the state. Both the sections formed hardly one per cent of the whole French population. On the other hand, the commoners were maximum in numbers but they were neither having any status nor any right. They bore all the burden of taxes. The dissatisfaction was rising due to such a disparity.

III. Economic Causes
The economic condition of France had completely deteriorated by the middle of the eighteenth century.
Misuse of the State Money: - The kings of France were pleasure-seekers and extravagant in their habits. It was estimated in 1789, that the maintenance cost of the palace was twenty crore dollars. Indeed, it was a tomb of the nation. Louis XVI continued with the extravagant expenditure of the court like his predecessors. His wife rather helped in increasing the expenditure further. On the eve of the French Revolution, France was completely bankrupt.
Unfair distribution of Taxes: - The commoners bore the burden of all the taxes. A big section of the commoners was poor but they were made to pay all the taxes. On the other hand, the nobles and clergy were rich and could pay taxes but no tax was imposed on them. The commoners were made to part with 80% of their income. It was difficult to survive with the remaining income. They were tired of their economic oppression.
Faulty System of Tax Collection: - The system to collect taxes was also faulty and oppressive. The tax collection rights were sold in open bidding. Such a bidder, who bought the right of collection of taxes, was called Farmers and the system was called the Farming of the taxes. The Farmers collected more taxes than the permitted amount but deposited a lesser amount in the exchequer. They were one of the main causes of the poverty of the people.
The Unserviceable National Debt: - France was counted among the richest country of her contemporary times. However, the actual reality was totally different. France had a good income but it was under huge debt. There was no financial planning on the account of income and expenditure. Necker, the finance minister, estimated that in 1788, that France was liable to pay sixty crore dollars. On the other hand, France was not in a position to pay even interest on her loan because of the empty treasury.
Decline in Trade: - Trade of France was declining steadily. The government paid no attention to the growth of the trade. The traders paid numerous toll taxes at various places. Hence, the trading community was not happy.
Financial Assistance to America: - America was in possession of Britain. The Americans revolted against British rule. France gave military and monetary help to the Americans fighting for their independence because she wanted to take revenge with Britain. However, it proved a costly option for France.

VI. Contribution of PhilosophersFrance gave birth to numerous scholars, thinkers and philosophers during this century. They wrote political literature in which they had criticised the shortcomings of the state extensively They tried to spread an opinion that there was a need for the fundamental changes in the political and social structure of Europe. An educated and emerging middle class of France was especially attracted and influenced by their views and thus revolutionary thoughts started emerging. Therefore, some historians call the philosophers of France the ‘Prophets of Revolution’. Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Dante were on the top among the leading philosopher who ushered in the French Revolution.

IV. Effects of American War and Event of Ireland.
Effects of American War of Independence
: - The French soldiers had participated in the American War of Independence along with the American Revolutionaries who were fighting on the question of equality and liberty. It had left a great influence on the French soldiers. It is said that French thoughts and American example caused the revolution.
Effects of the Events of Ireland: - Ireland had also revolted against the oppressive policies of Britain and managed to gain relief between 1779 and 1782. The events of Ireland also encouraged them to revolt.

V. The Famine of 1788The famine took place in various part of France and people started to starve. They migrated to Paris to escape starvation. In Paris, the rumour spread that the entire foodstuff had been bought and stored by the royal family. It infuriated the people of Paris. The Paris people gathered in a big mob and brought back the king and the queen from Versailles to Paris. After the fall of Bastille on July 14, 1789, it was the second most spectacular event wherein the public had participated in open in October 1789.

VI. Immediate Cause
The convening of the session of Estates General became the immediate cause of the French Revolution. It was convened to reform the economic condition of the country. France had become bankrupt due to the overspending and heavy borrowing by the royalty. Compelled by the circumstances, Louis XIV called the session of Estate General on May 1, 1789. All the three sections of the French society were represented in the Estate General assembly. However, the numbers of the members of the third Estate, that was the Commoners, was equal to the numbers of the members of the two other sections of the assembly taken together. The Third Estate placed demand after demand before the assembly and the king. The king was ultimately made to accept their demands, which were acceptable to neither the clergy, nobility nor the royalty.

In this manner, the session turned into the immediate cause of the eruption of the revolutionary events. It was marked with the fall of Bastille on July 14, 1789, and the Bread March of the Paris people (Parisians) to Versailles in October 1789, from where the king, the queen, and his son were brought back to Paris. There in Paris, he was made to sign the resolutions passed by the Estate General which had been, by then, dominated by the members of the third estate or their well-wishers. It reached its climax when the National Convention was organised to write the constitution and ultimately, the execution of the King before the court established by the new constitution and establishment of the Republic of France. The king was beheaded in 1792 and Republic of France was established.

Word Count: 1859

Important Note:
यह एक अति महत्तवपूर्ण प्रश्‍न है ।
इस के आने की सम्‍भावना बनी रहती है ।
परन्‍तु यह एक लम्‍बे उत्तर वाला प्रश्‍न है ।
इसे लिख कर तैयार करो ।

Edited again on September 19,2005.


Wednesday, September 07, 2005

The American Revolution (Descriptive-Refresher Type) For B. A. III Paper A

The American Revolution

Question V-1-7: Discuss the main causes of the American Revolution? What were its effects?
Or
Describe in brief the main causes of the American Revolution. V V Imp.





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Answer: Causes of the American Revolution: The American Revolution was the most important event of the eighteenth century in the history of the world. The American colonies shook off the slavery of Britain by this revolution. Britain had thirteen colonies in America. The British Emperor was the ruler of those colonies. In 1772, the settlers of the colonies revolted against Britain. In history, this revolt is famous as the American Revolution for Independence.
(A). CHANGE IN AMERICAN ATTITUDE

The change in the attitude of the Americans was the main cause of the American Revolution.
Lack of Love for England in Colonies: - The settlers in America never developed confidence in Britain from where they had come. They hated and doubted the British.
Divergent Objectives: - There were divergence and conflict between objectives of the Americans and the British Government on many grounds liked economic, religious and political.
Love for Freedom and Aspiration for Progress: -The Americans of colonies were freedom-loving, courageous and intrepid people. Their aspiration for freedom and democratic setup placed them in opposition to imperialistic policies of Britain. British administration worked only for British Island.
Improper Trade laws and Increase in Taxes: - British Parliament passed numerous laws concerning American trade, shipment, and navigation, which extremely hurt the business interest of North colonies in America.
Rise of New Institutions: - The new institutions in social, political and economic spheres of American life, which had emerged in response to American conditions since 1600, had given them a distinctive American identity.
All the above views are of American historians who are strongly contented by British historians.
(B) ECONOMIC CAUSES

The main social classes of American society were Business class, Planters, Commission Agents, Speculators etc. They were suffering at the hands of the British economic policies.
Commercial and Navigation Acts: - The American Commerce and Navigation Acts passed by the British Government were hurting the trade interest of Northern American Colonies.
Economic Policy towards South: - The Southern American Colonies had estranged relations with the British traders due to the imbalance of trade.
Lend-Lease Act: - The American land speculators suffered due to the British check on colonization towards the west coast of America.

(C) RELIGIOUS CAUSES

The American stopped paying their religious taxes when the priests turned corrupt.
The American opposed the political participation of the religious people.
The American Protestants were against the Anglican Church of England.
(D) ATTEMPTS AT IMPERIAL SECURITY

The British Government made the Americans pay for the protection from France and the Red Indians. The American did not find it judicious.
(E) IMMEDIATE CAUSES

Three Points Policy of Granville: - Granville, who became the Prime Minister in 1763, tried to execute the Navigation Acts, made the Americans pay for the standing army and imposed the direct taxes on the Americans.
Writs of Assistance: - With the motive of implementing the Navigation Acts, the Customs officials were empowered with the Writs of Assistance.
Stamp Act: - To increase the revenue from the American colonies, the Stamp Duty was imposed.
Virginia Proposal: - Under this proposal, Patrick Henry sought equal status and rights for American with British nationals from the mainland.
Townshend Act: - When the Stamp Act was revoked due to strong protest of American, Townshend imposed new taxes on specific items like paints, paper, glass, tea etc. He also strictly imposed Customs laws.
Boston Massacre: - Boston Massacre took place on March 5, 1770. The incidence took place when the Boston people were objecting to the camping of soldiers in Massachusetts.
Tea Act and Boston Tea Party: - Lord North imposed a tax on the import of tea to America. It aimed at maintaining the claim of Britain to collect taxes from Americans. The American dumped the tea worth 10000 pounds in the sea off the Boston shores on December 16, 1770.

Intolerable Acts of 1774 - A Retaliation


  1. The Boston Port Act: - The Boston harbour was closed to the business.

  2. The Administration of Justice Act: - The British officials, accused of criminal acts, would be tried in England or had the right to seek a trial in tribunals of other colonies.

  3. The Massachusetts Government Act: - The Charter Act of Massachusetts was annulled.

  4. The Quartering Act: - The army could be stationed in any city of Massachusetts's colony.

  5. The Quebec Act: - The Quebec Act was brought into force in the Western part of the Appalachians, border of Canada and whole of the region north of Ohio River. The motive was to regulate the 'fur trade' and to bring under administrative protection the French Roman Catholics in Illinois and Michigan which irritated the English.
Protestant of North part of colonies.
First Continental Congress: - On September 5, 1774, in Philadelphia, the first session of 'Continental Congress' was held
Two main policy decisions were taken against the British government.
The British Parliament did not give any positive response and reacted by passing a 'Restraining Act' which were against the American trade with the West Indies. It also declared Massachusetts as a rebellious colony and caring little for the warning of the Continental Congress, ordered forces against Massachusetts. General Gage attacked Lexington and Concord near Boston.
The Second Continental Congress and the Declaration of Independence: - As decided earlier, the American colonies met on May 10, 1775, in Philadelphia. They declared Britain the aggressor. They snapped their ties with the Crown and King George III. They resolved to fight.
Peace Treaty of Paris (1783) and Recognition to the United States (U.S.): - The war ended in the peace treaty signed in Paris. The main provisions were: -
Britain recognized the independence of colonies and accepted to withdraw.
Great Lakes fixed the boundaries of United States in North and 31' north latitude in South.
IMPACT OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION

America emerged as an independent country.
England abandoned the path of mercantilism. New trade relations were established between America and Britain.
America adopted a written constitution.
America was able to push out Spain later.
England changed her colonial policy. It was because of this change that the British Commonwealth of Nations was established.
The American Revolution also ended the personal rule of George III in England. The parliamentary Acts curtailed the powers of the Emperor. It, on the other hand, increases the power of the institution of 'Cabinet'.
Free America faced numerous social and economic problems. It led to the American Civil War later.
The American industry developed rapidly after independence.
America was the first nation to declare herself as a secular country just after her independence.
Many political and social changes took place in America after independence, her laws of inheritance changed.
The American Revolution had worked as a source of inspiration to other colonies to think of their independence from England.
Many historians have tried to show that the American Revolution was an indirect cause of the French Revolution of 1789.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REVOLUTION - A CONCLUSION

There were far-reaching consequences for the whole world for a long time to come from the American War of Independence. It had given inspiration to the colonies to struggle for their independence. It made the first successful experiment of running the government on democratic principles. The common man got the right to franchise. The decline of mercantilism began as a result of the American Revolution. It had also been a cause of the French Revolution. The Federal form of Government is considered the result of the American Revolution. The principle of Secularism was practised for the first time in America.
No doubt and it is not an exaggeration, that it had completely transformed the social traditions and thoughts of human society.


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Glorious Revolution (Descriptive-Refresher Type) for B. A. III Paper A

Glorious Revolution
Causes and Results of the Glorious Revolution

Question IV-1-6: Trace the events which led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688.
Or
What were the main causes of the Glorious Revolution? Discuss its events?
Or
Why is the Glorious Revolution is called glorious?
Or
Describe the circumstance leading to the Glorious Revolution. Why is called glorious?
Or
What were the effects of the Glorious Revolution on the history of Great Britain? V V IMP

Answer: In 1685, Duke of York took over the throne of England as King James II. However, within three years, all the political parties of England and people of England became so annoyed with James II because of his policies that they requested the daughter of James II, Mary and her husband William of Orange to take over the throne. When James II found that the whole nation was against him, he abandoned the throne in 1688. King William took over the throne of England on the request of her Parliament. This event is known as the Bloodless Revolution or the Glorious Revolution.

Causes of the Glorious Revolution:

1). Personality of James II: James II was incompetent to make the right judgement of the mood of the people. He lacked the practical approach of a royal head. He was jealous and envious by nature. He was stubborn, revengeful and tactless. It was such traits of his personality which made him take wrong steps one after another and within three years he came across a situation where his daughter and army deserted him and pressed by circumstances he escaped to France.
2). Attempt to Repeal Test Act: An act was passed in 1673, which debarred the Catholics to hold the government post in England. James II was a great supporter of Catholics. He wanted to favour them. Therefore, he tried to repeal the Test Act. The Parliament strongly resisted his attempt. James II went ahead in making appointments of Catholics. It was not like by Protestant England. No doubt, in Bill of Rights, which was the constitutional arrangement after 1688, ban on Catholics was the main provision.
3). Suppression of enemies: In 1685, Duke of Argyle in Scotland revolted against James II. James II defeated and killed him. Again, the son of Charles II, Duke of Monmouth, revolted against him. James II also defeated him and killed him. He went a step further in his cruelty when he killed 300 of his supporters. It was the cause of opposition against him for coming times.
4). Abuse of Royal Power: When James II faced great opposition of Parliament at the time of revoking of Test Act, he tried to acquire the Dispensing Power and Suspending Power. Under Dispensing Power he tried to claim that he could limit the exercise of any law. Under Suspending Power, he claimed that he could suspend the Parliament law for some time. It was something which the Parliament did not permit and confrontation was natural. No doubt, in the legal arrangements with William III after the revolution, Parliament totally debarred the king from taking over such rights.
5). Standing Army: James II tried to raise the army of England to 30000 with the idea of intimidating the people. The English nations did not like this act on the part of their monarch. In the post-revolution period, they included special provisions to check the future kings from adopting such measures during peace times.
6). Prerogative Courts: James II established a Court of Ecclesiastical Commission to establish the supremacy of Church over the English nation. The English Parliament had ended such courts in 1641. Charles II, the earlier king before James II had fully endorsed this act of Parliament. Hence, it was illegal on the part of James II to act in that manner. No doubt, it had raised great opposition against James II within the country.
7). Appointment of Catholics: James II interfered in the functioning of the English university like that of Oxford and Cambridge. He appointed many Catholics on the various bodies of those Universities. He suspended the Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge University when he did not confer degree on a Catholic monk. He virtually tried to convert those universities into the centre of Catholic Religion. It turned the intellectuals of England against James II.
8). Policy towards Scotland and Ireland: Scotland and Ireland were strong Protestants. James II here also tried to impose the Catholics on those regions and convert it to a Roman Catholic region. It turned the Scottish and Irish people against the rule of James II.
9). James inclination towards France: James II was friend and cousin of Louis XIV of France. Louis XIV had adopted oppressive policies towards the Protestants of France. James II had shown support to his policies. The people of England did not approve of their friendship. As a result, they started doubting the motives of James II.
10) Declaration of Indulgence and Trial of Seven Bishops: When James II found that the Parliament of England did not support his pro-Catholic legislation, he passed the Declaration of Indulgence. Under this ordinance, he extended religious freedom to Catholics in order to make their appointment. As per his Second Declaration of Indulgence of 1688, he ordered the priests to declare that his ordinance in churches on every second Sunday. The Archbishop of Canterbury and six other priests petitioned before the king against his second order. James II refused to oblige. When the priests refused to oblige the king, they were arrested and tried in the court. The court extricated them. It sent jubilation among the people of England. It was virtually a verdict against the illegal acts of the king.
11). Immediate Cause: The people of England were putting up with the illegal acts of James II with a hope that as he did not have any legal heir and the next eligible candidate for the throne was his daughter Mary. Mary was a Protestant. However, it was a shock for them when a son was born to James II on June 10, 1688. The political parties including Whigs and Tories now feared that the illegal rule of James would not end with his death. They approached Mary and her husband King William III of Holland to take over the throne. William accepted their request.
12). Main Events: William landed on the post of Torbey on November 5, 1688. James II set out to meet him in the battle of the field of Salisbury. However, his army left him and joined William. The exasperated James II abandoned England and escaped to France where he died in 1710. In January 1689, the Convention of Parliament was called. The Parliament passed the Declaration of Rights. The throne was entrusted to William and Mary jointly. In this manner in a revolutionary manner, the Declaration of Rights changed the whole set up in England without shedding any blood.
13) Main Result:

Significance and Nature: Nature: Trevelyan had called this revolution as a Glorious Revolution. His first argument is that this revolution had settled all the religious and political questions without any bloodshed which had never happened earlier. Secondly, this revolution had the full support of the people. Thirdly, it was not a revolution of any one political or religious ideology but represented the collective aspiration of the whole nation.
Significance: The Declaration of Rights was the main result of this revolution. It had the following significant features:
a). It ended the Divine Right theory of Kingship.
b). It ended the absolute monarchy.
c). It made the institution of monarchy permanent.
d). It established the supremacy of Parliament.
e). It settled all the religious questions for England for all times to come.
f). It established the rule of law and individual liberty.
Note: Try to elaborate each point given under the title Significance if it is specifically asked in the question itself.


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Fredrick II – A Great Enlightened Despot (Descriptive-Refresher Type) for B. A. III Paper A


Fredrick II – A Great Enlightened Despot

Question: III-2-5: Frederick the Great of Prussia was an enlightened monarch. Do you agree with this?
Or
Describe the achievements of Frederick the Great of Prussia.

Answer: Fredrick II ruled over Prussia from 1740 to 1786. He is known as the Fredrick the Great in history. His name shines with the names of Henry IV of France and Louis XIV of France among the enlightened monarchs of Europe. He was a complete despot who had taken over the reigns of every department in the state but still he was a king who worked for the welfare of the people.

Domestic Policy

1). An Enlightened Monarch: Frederick thought of kingship as a duty. In his Anti-Machiavel discussion of the principles of good government published in 1740, Frederick wrote that there were two types of princes, those who ruled in person and those who worked through subordinates. The formers were "like the soul of a state" and "the weight of their government falls on themselves alone, like the world on the back of Atlas," whereas the second group were mere phantoms. Under him the Prussian administration was the most honest and hardworking in Europe. Its achievements, however, stemmed from the impetus supplied from above by the king rather than from any creative force inherent in the system itself.
2). Economic Reforms: Fredrick II gave utmost importance to the financial stability in the country and made the appropriate economic reforms. He also brought the fallow land under cultivation. He stopped the unnecessary expenditure in the administration. He drained out the swamps and made them available for agriculture. He dug many canals to promote irrigation. He introduced refined techniques in agriculture and also made available better seeds. He also encouraged the sowing of potatoes and the alternative fodder for cattle. He reduced the taxes on the farmers. The tamed the oppressive land owners.
He introduced the silk industry in Prussia. He cultivated many mulberry trees for that and encouraged the silk industry. The artisans were given every possible help to encourage the industry. In order to encourage the internal trades, the customs and toll posts were abolished and the roads were improved. He also joined the river Elbe, Oder and Havel by canals and established new mode of transportation. He also encouraged the national industry by checking the imports by raising the tariff walls. Prussia made tremendous progress in field of industry and commerce due the economic reforms of Fredrick II and became one the prosperous country of Europe.
3). Military Reforms: It was the main policy of Fredrick II to make Prussia strong and for that he had given maximum importance to make the Prussian army strong. He raised the schools for the military training of soldiers and provided them with the latest weapons. He introduced strict discipline in h is army. He spend a major income of his state on army. His army became so strong that it was envied by rest of Europe. When he had taken over the reign of Prussia, the country had 83000 soldiers and when he left, it had increased to 195000 soldiers.
4). Judicial Reforms: Fredrick II took a particular interests in the administration of justice and was greatly loved by his people. He gave right of equality to his people. He issued the code in easy words. He established High Court at Berlin and many provincial courts. He expedited the settlement of cases. He had appointed sincere and hardworking judges in the court at a very good salary. He was quite successful in establishing the rule of law and justice in his state.
5). Reforms for the development of Literature, Education and Art: Fredrick II was lover of art and culture. During his earlier days he devoted himself to literary side for which he had suffered the wrath of his high profile father King Frederick I. He himself had authored the books like Essay on Forms of Government and Duties of Sovereign. He liked the company of scholars, artists, scientist and patronised them just like any other enlightened monarch. Voltaire, the shinning star among philosophers and political thinker was his best friend. Similarly he established the Berlin Academy of Science. He also concentrated on educating the Prussians. He encouraged the music and construction activities.
6). Religious Policy: Fredrick II adopted the policy of tolerance towards religious issues. He was not in favour of fanatic Protestants. He had given asylum to the oppressed Roman Catholics who had been banished from other Protestant countries. However, he did not extended his policy of religious tolerance towards the Jews.
Foreign Policy: The main aim of the foreign policy of Fredrick II was to increase the territory of Prussia and gain prestige for her in the world politics. For it, he gave special importance to the military of Prussia. He adopted all the conceivable methods to achieve the aims of his foreign policy that some of the scholars had called him the new Machiavelli.
7). War of Austrian Succession: A struggle for the succession to the throne of Austria started in 1740. Taking advantage of the fluid political situation Fredrick II invaded and occupied Silesia. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle his occupation was confirmed.
8). Seven Years War: Austria tried to take revenge on Prussia because of her defeat in war of succession. She raised a front against Prussia. England came to the support of Prussia. This started a war between Prussia and Austria for seven years from 1756 – 1763. It was settled by the treaty of Hubertusburg. According to the treaty, Austria recognized the control of Prussia over Silesia. Prussian ruling dynasty Hohenzollern was imparted prestige similar to the Habsburg dynasty of Austria.
9). First Partition of Poland: In 1772, Austria, Prussia and Russia attacked Poland and divided it among themselves. Prussia acquired East Prussia out of this division. It was unethical act on the part of the European powers but on the other hand it was considered as the major diplomatic achievement of Fredrick II .
Estimate of Fredrick II : Frederick II had established the course of the future of Prussian history which was became of the history of Germany. He was able to defeat two leading powers of Europe, one the Holy Roman Empire and secondly the Habsburg family of Austria. However, a struggle between Austria and Prussia continued for a long time, but it was finally resolved in 1866 and Austria was finally subdued. For it, Frederick had earned the criticism of some historians, but it was such acts of the emperor, which imparted the place of honour to Prussia in Europe. He also gave the humanitarian touch to the future German royalty by patronizing the German culture and ethos. He brought the national unity of the German nation which was finally accomplished her national status in 1870.

Louis XIV (Descriptive-Refresher Type) B. A. III paper A

Louis XIV – The Sun King and the Great Enlightened Monarch

Question: III-1- 4: Briefly discuss the main achievements of Louis XIV of France. Why is he called the ‘Sun King’?

Answer: In 1643, Louis XIV took over the emperor of France. He was hardly five years old at that time. Upto 1661, Cardinal Mazarin ruled France for the young king.

Mazarin Period:

1. Peace with Neighbours: Mazarin secured the borders of France from the Habsburg dynasty ruling over Austria and Spain. He signed the pace of Westphalia with Austria in 1648 and the treaty of Pyrenees with Spain in 1659. It helped Louis later to raise the prestige of France and his Bourbon family.
2. Popular Revolt - Fronde: Mazarin was able to suppress the popular revolt, which is popular in French history as Fronde. It was the revolt of the people of Paris Parliament against Mazarin. There were following results: (1). The nobles became weak before the authority of the Emperor. (2). The Parliament of Paris was weakened and the Emperor was able to establish his authority. (3) The Parliament lost the power over the financial and political matters before the rulings given by the Emperor. (4) The royal authority was placed on firmer grounds. It later helped Louis to establish the authority of his rule in France.

The Age of Louis XIV

3. Establishment of Absolute Rule: It was Louis XIV who was able to make the Europe believe in the principle of divine right of monarchical absolutism. He brought the rule of the empire in direct control of his hand in 1661 after the death of his mentor Mazarin. He achieved it by his deeds and personality as the Emperor of France. It made the French people loyal to the French Emperor till the days of the French Revolution. His ideology was framed by the guidance of his tutor Bossuet. The Emperor learned and was fixed the belief that he was having divine blessings. That, his main aim was the welfare of the nation and he is answerable to god for that. That what so ever he thought and deemed it right to do, all that was guided by the God himself. With such a mental grooming, he achieved the honour for France not only in internal matters but also in the European politics. He became the role model of rest of the kings of Europe who were getting freedom from dependence upon their feudal lords.
4. Method of Ruling: Louis XIV showed to European Emperors that what they should do in their offices. He established an organised central government. He appointed ministers on all the departments himself who were subordinate to the emperor in real sense. Before him, the ministers used to dominate the kings. Similarly, he appointed obedient intendents and local officials at provincial level who directly reported to him. He devoted all his time to run the administration. He adopted the principle that one reigns by work and for work. In this manner, he became the role model for other upcoming monarchies, which were coming out of the shadow of Feudalism. He worked incessantly for France and liked to equate his continous activity to the movements of Sun god Apollo.
5. Development of Art and Literature: The field of architecture, sculpturing, music, and French literature made tremendous progress during the reign of Louis XIV. His period is called the Golden Period of French art. The palace of Versailles was the main centre of artistic activities. The leading personalities of his period in various of field of art were Mansart in architecture, La Brun in Painting, Girardon in sculpturing, Lully in music, La Foantaine, Madam de Savigne and Bossuet in literature and history.
6. Financial Reforms: The financial reforms in France were undertaken under supervision of the emperor by Colbert. Colbert removed the corrupt officers, revoked the indirect taxes on the common man, improved the breed of cattle and horses, encouraged agriculture by improving road and river transport, removed the illogical toll taxes. He made tremendous progress in the field of agricultural reforms. He was not in favour of industrialization but the king contributed in the field of industrialization.
7. Industrial and Commercial Reforms: Louis XIV carried the principles of Colbert for financial reforms in the field of industry and commerce. He encouraged the expert artisans and technicians to migrate to France from foreign countries. He introduced new industries in France. He is credited with introduction of Silk industry in France. He improved the conditions in the old industries of France. As a result of such reforms, the production in field of ship building, textiles, glass etc improved. He imposed tariff walls against import to France, encouraged French export by reducing taxes and giving special facilities in shipping. Similarly he also acquired colonies and bought areas for the improvement of the French trade and industry. He also established East India Company.
8. Strengthened Navy: Louis XIV improved the harbours and strengthen the French Navy for the benefit of the French trade, commerce and industry. He encouraged ship building. He improved the harbours of Toulon, Brest etc. He also recruited the best sailors in his navy. It not only improved the trade and commerce of France, but also made France a Naval power.
9. Religious Policy: Louis XIV was supporter of the Roman Catholic Church and strongly against the Protestants. He abolished the Edict of Nantes (1598) which ended the religious freedom to the Protestants in their areas. He appointed the Roman Catholics on important posts and adopted discriminatory policies towards the Protestants. He even oppressed them.
10. Versailles Palace: Louis XIV constructed an imposing palace at Versailles which 12 miles away from Paris. This palace became the cultural centre of France as well as of Europe. The palace was adorned by the leading artists of its times. It also helped the emperor to divert the attention of nobles from the political activities. The nobles got engaged in the cultural activities and overlooked their duties. It provided the opportunity to Louis XIV to consolidate his autocratic control over rest of France. The nobles started paying more attention to win over the favour of the monarch. It also helped the emperor to impress the rest of Europe with his prosperity.
11. Foreign Policy: Among the reforms, his foreign policy can also be counted as it helped France to establish herself as a European power for the first time. His foreign policy is identified with four wars which he undertook through out his tenure. They were as follows:
a). The War of Devolution 1667-68: Louis XIV fought this war on the question of inheritance of his queen Maria Teresa to the property in Netherlands. France was able to acquire the areas of Belgium from the treaty of Aix – la – Chapelle.
b). War with Holland 1672 – 1678: This war was fought because Holland had tried to organise a forum against the claim and activities of France during the War of Devolution. It was settled by treaty of Nimwegen where in France got French Comte.
c). War with League of Augusburg 1688 -1697: This war was fought against Austria because she had organised a League of Augusburg against the rising influence and expanding territory of France. France got Strasbourg out of the treaty of Ryswick which was signed to end this war.
d). War of Spanish Succession: 1701 – 1713: Louis XIV was able to seat his grandson Philip of Anjou on the throne of Spain by the treaty of Utrect.
On the whole, France suffered great expenditure because of the wars. However, Louis XIV was able to impart political unity and prestige to France in Europe.
12. Louis XIV- A Sun King: The tittle Sun King was chosen by the Emperor Louis XIV for himself on his own and he is remembered as the Sun King among the enlightened monarchs of Europe. The sun is associated with the Grecian God Apollo. Apollo was the god of peace and art. The sun is also a heavenly body which is source of life. Louis XIV who was a great patron of art, guarantor of peace and prestige and richest monarch who dispensed bounties, loved to follow the example of sun in his ways and acts. He adopted this title when he himself played the role of Sun in the Ballet de la Nuit and felt infatuated by the character. He also raised the Apollo Salon in his palace. He also raised a garden where in the path of Sun was depicted. He loved to project himself as working incessantly like the activity of the Sun. Apart from being called as the Grand Enlightened monarch, he is also popular as Sun King in history.