STAGES IN THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY for B. A. III

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General Discussion: The Unification of Italy one of the most important question for April 2005 for Paper A, B. A. III student of Punjab University Chandigarh. It had appeared again and again earlier.
However, this question is quite long and students are not able to write the whole answer within a reasonable period of time.

Even a brief answer given below exceeds one thousand words which are the normal number of words that could be generally written by an average student. It has more than two thousand words. However, the following example, if practised, can be written within 45 to 50 minutes covering six to seven pages.

A detailed answer will be provided in succeeding posting.
Next posting will include a very small summary which will immediately follow this posting.
I hope that with the help of the brief summary and the example of an answer below, the students may able to write this question which usually comes in the final paper.

In addition, if the students practice a hand-drawn map of Italy and plot the five stages on the answer sheet itself as an addition to the answer suggested, I believe that no paper checker in the world could deny you more than 70% (i.e. 14 to 16) marks.

Question. What obstacles stood in the way of the unification of Italy and how were they removed?
Or
Discuss the different stages in the unification of Italy.
Or
Briefly, describe the stages by which the unification of Italy was brought about with special reference to the role of King Victor Emmanuel II and his minister Cavour.

Answer: -

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  HURDLES ON THE PATH OF UNIFICATION

THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE: - Austria had stationed a strong army in Lombardy and Venetia. As long as Austria was there, the unification of Italy was not possible.

REACTIONARY RULERS: - The various monarchies, supported by Metternich, were another main hurdle for the unification.

THE VARIOUS PLANS FOR UNIFICATION: - a. Mazzini wanted to establish the Republic of Italy.
b. Geoberti wanted to establish a Federation of Italy under Pope.
c. The House of Savoy wanted to establish a constitutional monarchy under the king of Piedmont – Sardinia.

LACK OF NATIONAL AWAKENING: - " In Italy, provinces are against provinces, towns against towns, families against families and men against men." (Metternich)

PAPAL STATES: - Pope was comfortably entrenched in the middle of Italy. Hence, any revolt by the Italians against the Pope was bound to earn the wrath of the Roman Catholic world.

A NEW BACKGROUND FOR UNIFICATION: - Napoleon had joined Italy into a political unit. Lipson had commented, " The lesson that Italy was a nation once learnt, was never forgotten."

REMOVAL OF OBSTACLES AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY: - The unification of Italy had passed through five stages.

A. Stage First: - The reactionary powers were weakened and the awareness of nationalism was inculcated and developed among Italians. This stage is identified with the contributions of Mazzini.
B. Stage Second: - Lombardy was snatched from Austria. This stage also watched the verdict in favour of merging with Piedmont-Sardinia by the states of Middle Italy. This phase was identified with the success of the diplomacy of Cavour.
C. Stage Third: - Absolutist monarchy in Naples and Sicily was ended. The author of this stage was Garibaldi. Garibaldi could have even ended the rule of Pope but Victor Emmanuel and Cavour accomplished this task.
D. Stage Fourth: - Italy, under Emmanuel, measured swords with Austria for one more time and acquired Venetia.
E. Stage Fifth: - Rome was made the part of Italy and the territories and the area of the influence of Pope was restricted and settled. In this manner, the process of unification passed through five stages. A brief description of these five stages is given below. (The above A to E-statements could be deleted for reducing the size of the answer. The stages are again repeated below. It is merely a suggested presentation. Hence, the students could changes as per their abilities.)

FIRST STAGE OF UNIFICATION.

A PHASE OF MATTERNICH ERA: - Metternich, the chancellor of Austria, was a supporter of reactionary policies in Europe. He acted like a European policeman who did not permit the national spirit to flourish in Italy. However, Metternich was forced to quit during the 1848 revolution in Austria. The struggle freedom and unification of Italy acquired momentum thereafter.

TWO PLANS WERE TRIED: -Mazzini, a supporter of the Republic of Italy, tried to raise the feelings of nationalism among the Italians through his organization 'Young Italy'. Secondly, some patriots tried to organise a Federation under the rule of Pope and projected him the possible alternative.

HOPE FROM CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY PLAN: - A view developed that a constitutional monarchy under the king of Piedmont – Sardinia could be a possibility. The Italians had seen the shortcomings of the Republican and Federalist plans.

The Results: - Hence, the results achieved in the first stage were two.
The problem of lack of awareness of nationalism was ended.
A dilemma over the number of ideologies was settled in favour of constitutional monarchy.

SECOND STAGE OF UNIFICATION

THE ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM BY CAVOUR: - Cavour had analyzed that Austria was the only obstruction to the unification of Italy. Piedmont-Sardinia could manage this factor only by acquiring befitting strength. For that, a strong army and a healthy economy were the only solutions. In addition to that, the support and help of another European power were also essential.

PLANS FOR PEACE AND PROSPERITY:(It can also be written as the contribution of Cavour to the internal policy of Sardinia.) - Cavour adopted the following policies.
The financial assistance was extended for the promotion of industry.
The railway network was spread over a wide area.
The education was given special attention.
The steps were taken to further promote agriculture.
The exports were promoted.

SARDINIA BECAME STRONG: - Cavour raised a well-disciplined and fully armed with modern weaponry, an army of ninety thousand soldiers.

NEED OF A FRIEND: - Cavour was of the firm belief, that Austria could only be removed with the assistance of a powerful ally. Hence, he was in search of a dependable powerful country, which could help her to remove Austria out of Italy.

GETTING SYMPATHY OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE: - Cavour got his first opportunity to win over the sympathies and friendship of the European countries when he voluntarily participated in the Crimean War in 1856. He dispatched seventeen thousand soldiers without putting any terms and conditions for his participation, to the battlegrounds of Crimea as a friend of England and France. By adopting this policy, he wanted to project himself as a friend of England and France on international political forums.

SARDINIA IN PARIS: - The Crimean war ended in 1856 by the treaty of Paris. Sardinia was also invited to the peace conference at Paris as a victorious ally having equal status with the other European powers. Austria had risen to object to this participation but Sardinia had, by then, friends in France and England. Austrian objections were totally overlooked. In the conference, Cavour blasted Austria for her oppressive ways in Italy. He exposed the mismanagement and oppression by Austria in Italy and convinced the participants that the situation in Italy was miserable due to Austrian actions.

ACHIEVEMENT AT PARIS CONFERENCE: - The support earned in the conference was a moral victory of Cavour. The prestige of Sardinia and Cavour arose high among all the European nations. After that, Cavour went all out to increase the intimacy with France and pursued her to contribute in Sardinian ventures.

SECRET TREATY BETWEEN NAPOLEON III AND CAVOUR: - On July 21, 1858, a secret treaty was signed between Napoleon III and Cavour at Plombiereres. Napoleon III assured Sardinia to help to remove Austria out of Lombardy and Venetia. Sardinia committed the transfer of Nice and Savoy in return for the help.

A FEAR OF CAVOUR: - Cavour feared that in case of Austro – Sardinia war, the European powers could call a conference before Cavour could achieve his aim. He knew that he could also not depend upon Napoleon, as the French emperor was known for his whimsical nature. Cavour went all out to provoke Austria to attack Sardinia.

AUSTRIA'S ULTIMATUM TO SARDINIA: - Cavour provoked Austria by increasing the customs duties on the imports from Austria. He published anti-Austrian articles in the newspapers. He stepped up the military preparations. He staged the revolts in the Italian territories under the control of Austria. Ultimately, the 'War Party of Austria' made their government issue an ultimatum to Sardinia to disarm Sardinian soldiers on the borders of Lombardy.

AUSTRO-SARDINIAN WAR: - Austria invaded Sardinia in April 1859. Austria was finally defeated at Solferino on June 24, 1859.

A HALT SOUNDED BY NAPOLEON III: - Napoleon III withdrew the support to military activities of Sardinia. It signed a treaty with Austria at Villafranca in July 1859. The terms of the treaty were as follows.
Lombardy was to be given to Sardinia.
Austria would retain Austria.
The rulers of Tuscany, Parma and Modena would receive back their thrones.
A league under the headship of Pope would be established.
Napoleon III had virtually ditched Sardinia. He was apprehensive that after her victory of Solferino Sardinia would emerge stronger and Italy would rise as a nation. This possibility was not relished by Napoleon III.

RESIGNATION OF CAVOUR: - Cavour resigned on being cheated by the act of France at Villafranca. However, he was called back in January 1860.

THE MERGING OF STATES IN THE KINGDOM OF SARDINIA: - Napoleon III had signed the treaty against the wishes of Italy but he was not able to judge the real mood of the Italians. In spite of his best efforts, he was not able to restore Modena, Parma, and Tuscany to their earlier rulers.

A BIG BARGAIN: - Cavour, again, bargained with Napoleon III that, if Central Italy were permitted to merge with the kingdom of Sardinia, Nice and Savoy would be transferred to France. Consequently, after a Plebiscite, Modena, Parma, Tuscany and Romagna were merged with Sardinia. Nice and Savoy were transferred to France for not raising any objection and helping in the union.

CRITICISM OF CAVOUR: - For this, Cavour was highly criticized. There was a great protest in England also. In reality, Cavour was constrained to do so. He was motivated by a higher goal. He had very rightly judged that if alacrity were not shown in the merging of Central Italy into one nation, the European powers would have reinstated the old rulers on those provinces.

C. THIRD STAGE OF UNIFICATION

At this stage, Naples and Sicily joined rest of Italy under the leadership of Emperor of Sardinia – Piedmont. This unification passed through the following phases.

REVOLUTION IN SICILY: - The people of Sicily revolted against their Bourbon ruler Francis II in 1860. Their leader was Crispy. Crispy sought the help of Garibaldi.

EXPEDITION OF ONE THOUSAND: - Garibaldi landed on the island of Sicily along with his 'Red Shirts' army constituted of one thousand soldiers on May 11, 1860. The Sicilians joined under his flag.

GARIBALDI OCCUPIES SICILY: -He occupied the whole Sicily within the next two months. Garibaldi started ruling Sicily in the name of Emperor Victor Emmanuel II.

STRUGGLES IN NAPLES: - Garibaldi marched on Naples on August 19, 1860. He occupied Naples on September 7, 1860.

PLANS TO ATTACK ROME: - Garibaldi planned to attack Rome. It created an alarming situation as it could have lead to a wider war in Italy, which could have brought the foreign army in the country.

FARSIGHTEDNESS OF CAVOUR: - On the advice of Cavour, King Victor Emmanuel attacked and annexed the Papal areas like Umbria and Marches before Garibaldi started his attack in the Papal area. However, he evaded attacking the Rome proper. When Garibaldi learned that the Emperor himself was pursuing his job, he dropped his plans. In this way, the situation was saved from getting worse in the hands of enthusiastic patriots. On October 21, 1860, a plebiscite was arranged in Naples and Sicily. The people of Naples and Sicily voted for union with the rest of Italy.

VICTOR EMMANUEL AND GARIBALDI IN NAPLES: - Victor Emmanuel occupied the areas of Capua and Gaeta, which formed the part of Naples. Garibaldi handed over rest of Naples and Sicily like a true patriot to the king of Sardinia Victor Emmanuel and left the Naples.

FOURTH STAGE OF UNIFICATION

Venetia was annexed during this stage.

ANNEXATION OF VENETIA: - A war began between Austria and Prussia in 1866. In the war, Victor Emmanuel II participated with Prussia. Italy was defeated in this war but Prussia also defeated Austria. The treaty of Prague was signed between Prussia and Austria in 1866. According to the terms of the treaty, defeated Austria transferred Venetia to Italy. Fisher, the historian, comments, " The prize of Venetia was won on the field of Sadowa by the formidable Prussia army."

E. FIFTH AND THE FINAL STATE OF UNIFICATION

Annexation of Rome: - In 1870, a war began between France and Prussia. Napoleon III was compelled to call back the French army from Rome in order to face Prussian assault. Victor Emmanuel exploited the opportunity and attacked Rome. He soon occupied Rome. After a plebiscite, it was merged with the rest of Italy. Rome was made the capital of Italy in place of Turin. Rome became the capital of unified Italy.

The truth is that no hurdle can hold for long in the path of love for the nation. When the Patriots start their march with the flag of national unity, nature herself carves out the victory path for them. The temporal power of Austria and the spiritual regime of worldly Pope stood no grounds before the national spirit of Italian Patriots. Absolutist monarchies were made to lick dust before the purity of the feelings of national unity. All the streams of Italian national unity flowed into a common ocean, which is now remembered by the 'Unification of Italy'.


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