Nationalism in Italy
Question. IX-1-12: What obstacles stood in the way of the unification of Italy and how were they removed?
Or
Discuss the role Cavour, Garibaldi, and Mazzini in the Unification of Italy.
Discuss the different stages in the unification of Italy.
Or
Briefly, describe the stages by which the unification of Italy was brought about with special reference to the role of King Victor Emmanuel II and his minister Cavour.
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Answer: - There was not only political disunity among the Italians but they practised distinct social and cultural viewpoints. Hence, there were difficult hurdles on the path to unification. Brief descriptions of such difficulties are as follows.
The Austrian empire: - The biggest and immediate hurdle on the path of the unification of Italy was the Austrian Empire. The state of Lombardy and Venetia, which were the part of Italy, was in the possession of Austria. Italy could never think of unification if Austria was not moved out of those states. Austria could only be removed with a huge and powerful army and the support of foreign powers and Italy did not have either of them.
Reactionary rulers: The monarchical form of governments were reigning in different states of Italy. Their rulers believed in the divine rights of kingship. If the revolted had erupted in any of such state after 1815, the Austrian chancellor Metternich had helped the rulers of those states to crush the revolt. The reactionary rule of Metternich was also a big hurdle on the way to unification.
The various plans for unification: A major difficulty in achieving unification was the prevalence of a variety of viewpoints among Italians on the issue of unification of Italy. Like, (i) the Republicans desired to establish the Republic of Italy. The main proponent of this viewpoint was Mazzini. (ii) Another group of patriots was the votary of a Federation headed by a Pope. Geoberti was their leader. (iii) There were Italians who felt strongly for a constitutional monarchy. They wanted to see the king Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia as the Emperor of a unified Italy under a constitutional monarchy. Hence, there was a lack of a common vision for Italians on the question of ideology, which they might collectively adopt to unite their country. Otherwise, it was not possible to unify Italy.
Lack of national awakening: There was a lack of national awakening among the Italians due to their recent past. The enslavement for a number of centuries had made them reconcile with their plight, which the providence had made them suffer. Unfortunately, divergent social traditions and religious trends had developed in the meantime. Chancellor Metternich had very confidently declared thus: " In Italy, provinces are against provinces, towns against towns, families against families and men against men." He had rightly portrayed the situation which Italian patriots were finding quite difficult to salvage.
Papal States: The Pope was ruling a large part of Middle Italy. The papal state separated North Italy from South Italy. Hence, as long as, Pope was ruling, Italy could never have been united.
First Stage Of Unification and Role Of Mazzini
The national awareness spread among the Italians in the first stage. The Vienna Congress of 1815 had mauled the feelings of the Italian patriots. The leaders at the Vienna Congress had treated Italy as a pawn to fulfil their personal interests. Italy was again reduced to a geographical expression. The Italians had courageously tried to get rid of the reactionary rulers during the revolution of 1820, 1821 and 1832, but the absolutist monarchs were well supported by the reactionary Metternich. However, in 1848, Metternich was forced to quit after a revolution in Austria. It was soon followed by the emergence of a struggle for freedom and unification in Italy and it soon acquired momentum.
Many scholars and political writers like Mazzini tried to raise awareness about revolution and the need for a united Italy among the Italians through their writing. They tried to convince the Italians that they were a nation and the country was not a geographical expression. Mazzini made every possible effort to raise the feelings of nationalism among the Italians through his organization Young Italy. He had great faith in the energy of the youth of Italian and believed that the youth of Italy would bring about the unification of Italy. He made an unsuccessful armed attempt at removing Austria physically but failed. He had the dream of creating the Republic of Italy after removing Austria out of Italy.
During this stage, apart from maturing of the feeling of nationalism, another alternative of a constitutional monarchy for a unified Italy also acquired attention along with other plans of unification. The reason for the popularity of this ideology was the two lessons learned from the failure of the revolution of 1848 in which Mazzini played a major role. One lesson was that Italy could not be unified under the rule of the Pope. The second lesson was that a Republican solution was not useful as unification in the form of a Republic by making a federation of Italy was not possible. Hence, the results achieved in the first stage were two.
a. The problem of lack of awareness of nationalism was ended.
b. A dilemma over the number of ideologies was settled in favour of constitutional monarchy.
Second Stage Of Unification And Role Of Cavour
The Analysis Of The Problem By Cavour: - Cavour, was the Prime Minister of the king of Piedmont-Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel. He had the ability to foresee problems and could timely suggest and execute befitting measures to solve them. He had analysed that Austria was the only obstruction to the unification of Italy. Piedmont-Sardinia could manage this factor only by acquiring befitting strength. For that, a strong army and a healthy economy were the only solutions. In addition to that, the support and help of another European power were also essential. First, he took steps to make his fellow citizens prosperous and wealthy. For that he adopted policies like, (i) the financial assistance were extended for the promotion of industry; (ii) the railway network was spread over a wide area; (iii) the education was given special attention; (iv) the steps were taken to further promote the agriculture and (v) the exports were promoted.
Sardinia Became Strong: - Sardinia soon emerged as a wealthy and prosperous nation under his supervision. Cavour increased the strength of the military. He raised an army of a well-disciplined and fully armed ninety thousand soldiers. The Italian patriots shifted their affiliations to Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II when they found them emerging strong.
A Need Of A Friend: - Cavour was of the firm belief that Austria could only be removed with the assistance of a powerful ally. Hence, he was in search of a dependable powerful country. Cavour planned for a situation, wherein, he would get an opportunity to narrate the plight of Italy at the hands of Austria before the assembly of the European nations and he would have found a sympathetic audience. Simultaneously, he also planned for getting a hidden assurance of military assistance against Austria. Cavour was confident that in an event of the first attack by Austria, he would manage to project Sardinia as an innocent victim of Austrian unwarranted aggression and thus he would manage to receive more help from other European powers.
He was not only able to formulate a sound political plan; rather he also managed to implement it with great success.
Getting Sympathy Of England And France: - Cavour got his first opportunity to win over the sympathies of European countries in 1856. He became a participant in Crimea war from the side of France and England. He dispatched seventeen thousand soldiers without putting any terms and conditions for his participation, to the battlegrounds of Crimea. By adopting this policy, he wanted to project himself as a friend of England and France on international political forums. In this manner, it was an astute political manoeuvre of great significance. His soldiers fought courageously. It raised the prestige of Sardinia. England and France started feeling indebted to the sacrifices of Sardinian soldiers. He had remarked to his soldiers " Out of this mud, Italy will be made."
Sardinia in Paris: - The Crimean war ended in 1856 by the treaty of Paris. Sardinia was also invited to the peace conference at Paris as a victorious ally. At the Peace Conference of Paris, Sardinia was counted equal to leading nations of Europe like France, England, Austria, Turkey, Prussia, and Russia in spite of the strong objection of Austria. In the conference, Cavour blasted Austria for her oppressive ways in Italy. He convinced the participants that the situation in Italy was miserable due to Austrian actions. France and Britain criticised and discredited Austria for her actions in Italy. Cavour achieved his goal.
Achievement at Paris Conference: - The support earned in the conference was a moral victory of Cavour. France and England were inclined towards Sardinia. Cavour knew that England would not help Austria because of her own national interests. Hence, Cavour went all out to increase the intimacy with France and pursued her to contribute in Sardinian ventures.
Secret Treaty Between Napoleon III And Cavour: - On July 21, 1858, a secret meeting between Emperor Napoleon III and Prime Minister Cavour took place at Polembieres, a place near the Sardinian boarder. It was decided that whenever Austria would attack Sardinia, France would help Sardinia in the war and Austria would be removed from Lombardy and Venetia. Italy was to be organised into one country excluding the areas of the Papal States and Naples. In return for her help, France would be given Nice and Savoy. In order to further strengthen the friendship between Sardinia and France, the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel II, named Clothilde, a lass of 15 years, would be married to a cousin of Napoleon III, named Jerome Bonaparte(Note: A 2 marks question which has appeared again and again and the students generally do not find this answer), a man of 35 years. It was also planned in that secret parlays, that war would be started and managed in such a manner that Austria would be made to become an aggressor and Sardinia would be shown as fighting in self-defence.
Austria's Ultimatum to Sardinia: - Cavour stepped up his diplomatic activities. He raised the customs duties of imports from Austria and started publishing provocative anti-Austrian articles in regular newspapers. He activated the military preparations. He also staged the revolts in the Italian territories, which were under the Austrian occupation. The tension increased. Finally, Sardinia received an ultimatum from Austria. It was an agitated and aggressive warning by the `War Party of Austria', which asked for the disarmament of Sardinian soldiers within three days or they would attack.
Cavour was exulted and his happiness knew no bound. He joyously exclaimed, "The die is cast and we have made history." He got what he desired. Austria had declared herself an aggressor. Cavour wanted her to attack because it fulfilled the condition on which France had committed herself to help the Turin government of Piedmont-Sardinia.
Austro-Sardinian War: - Sardinia did not give any reply to the ultimatum by Austria. Consequently, the Austrian army invaded the Piedmont territory in April 1859. Napoleon, bound by his commitments of Plombieres, came to help Sardinian efforts. The joint army of France and Sardinia defeated the Austrian army, first on June 4, 1859, at Magenta and then at Solferino on June 24, 1859.
Sardinia conquered Lombardy in the battle of Solferino. Emmanuel led his victory march to Milan, the capital of Lombardy. The dominance of Sardinia was now established in Italy. Many states, like, Romagna, Modena, Parma and Tuscany revolting against their ruling dynasties on learning about the freedom of Lombardy from the clutches of Austria. Now it appeared to Napoleon III that a unified Italy under Sardinia would emerge as a strong united country and a nation. He became apprehensive. He had desired an independent Italy but never wanted her to emerge as a united nation as that could threaten the security of France. On the other hand, Roman Catholics of France were strongly against the continuation of Austria-Sardinian war. Another possibility, of Prussia helping Austria, also emerged and threatened to make the situation more complex. Austrian military was still strong. Napoleon was not ready to face a combined military force of Austria and Prussia and nor was he in a position to afford to face their combined might.
A Halt Sounded By Napoleon III: - Napoleon III declared an end to his participation and withdrew from the war owing to reasons as explained above. He signed a truce under the treaty of Villafranca with Austria in July 1859 without taking into confidence Victor Emmanuel or Cavour. Some of the major terms of the treaty were as follows.
i. The occupation of Lombardy by Sardinia was to be recognized.
ii. Venetia was to be left with Austria.
iii. The rulers of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena were to be restored to their lost thrones.
iv. A league was to be established under the leadership of Pope.
Resignation of Cavour: - Cavour recommended to his emperor to continue the pursuit of war and overlook the treaty. The Emperor turned down his suggestion and signed the treaty. A frustrated and annoyed Cavour tendered his resignation. However, just after six months, he again became the Prime Minister of Sardinia in January 1860.
A Big Bargain: - Now Cavour, again, bargained with Napoleon III that, if Central Italy were permitted to merge with the kingdom of Sardinia, Nice and Savoy would be transferred to France. Consequently, it was decided to conduct a plebiscite in the Central Italian Sates. The plebiscite took place and the public of Modena, Parma, Tuscany, and Romagna voted for their merger in the Kingdom of Sardinia. The result of plebiscite was implemented with full sincerity. The four provinces were merged with Sardinia. In this manner, all North Italy was united into one single nation excluding Venetia. It completed the second stage of Italian unification. Nice and Savoy were transferred to France.
For this, Cavour was highly criticized. There was a great protest in England also. The English people did not relish the expansion of French territories. The most staunch patriot and national leader of Italy, Garibaldi, was a native of Nice. He cried to Cavour, " You have made me a foreigner in the land of my birth."
The Third Stage of Unification and Role of Garibaldi
Out of three provinces of Venetia, Papal States, and Naples, the struggle first started in Naples. Sicily was a part of Naples. Francis II, its ruler, was from the Bourbon dynasty of France. He was an absolutist and a reactionary monarch. Garibaldi was the main leader during the third stage, which emancipated the people of Sicily from the oppression of Francis II.
Revolution in Sicily: - The people of Sicily revolted against Francis II under the leadership of Crispy in 1860. Crispy sought the help of Garibaldi. During those years, Garibaldi was living on the island of Caprers of Sardinia.
Expedition Of One Thousand: - Garibaldi landed on the island of Sicily along with his `Red Shirts', `One Thousand Soldiers' on May 11, 1860. Soon all the revolutionaries rallied under the flag of Garibaldi.
Garibaldi Occupies Sicily: - Francis II had stationed twenty-four thousand soldiers on the island of Sicily. However, the soldiers of Garibaldi were more motivated. He defeated the army of Naples very badly in a number of battles and brought the whole Sicily under the occupation of Garibaldi within two months. Garibaldi started ruling Sicily. He also made a declaration that he was ruling Sicily only as a representative of Emperor Victor Emmanuel II.
Struggle in Naples: - After Sicily, came the turn of Naples. Garibaldi marched over Naples after crossing the sea on August 19, 1860. The king of Naples had an army of one-lakh soldiers. However, he lacked confidence. Hence, Garibaldi got an easy success. The king Francis II escaped from Naples to Gaeta, a nearby territory, on September 6, 1860. The next day, the whole of Naples rallied under the flag of Garibaldi.
Plans to Attack Rome: - After conquering Naples, Garibaldi started planning to attack Rome. The French army was protecting Rome. It was obvious, in the event of an attack on Rome; the Red Shirts of Garibaldi had to fight the French forces. It could have escalated into a war between France and Sardinia. There was every possibility, that some European powers would like to join in to rescue the Pope. In any of such a situation, all the achievements of Cavour would have ruined to dust.
Farsightedness of Cavour: - Cavour wanted to keep France away from Italy. It could only be made possible if the territories of Rome were secured and permitted no chance to France to act as a defender. Cavour also knew that if he merged the Papal States, excluding Rome, with Sardinia, with the consent of the people of those areas, Napoleon III would raise no objection. Cavour took every next step with the perfection of an astute diplomat. He declared his doctrine thus: "Italy must be saved from foreigners, evil principles and madmen." To restrain Garibaldi, was the immediate need of the hour. To checkmate Garibaldi factor, a patriot of great following behind him, Cavour asked Victor Emmanuel to attack the surrounding areas of Rome before Garibaldi initiated the attack. The Sardinian Emperor was soon able to occupy Umbria and Marches, the territories of Papal States. However, he remained away from Rome proper. Garibaldi dropped the idea of attacking Rome when he found that Emmanuel was already doing that job.
Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi in Naples: - Capua and Gaeta, part of Naples, were still under the possession of Francis II. Victor Emmanuel II defeated him on November 2, 1860, and occupied those areas. After that, Garibaldi surrendered himself to Victor Emmanuel. Both of them entered Naples in a victory march on November 7, 1860. Garibaldi had readily accepted Emperor Victor Emmanuel as the ruler of Naples. The Emperor was pleased to award Garibaldi with high honours and prizes but Garibaldi politely declined. He was a sincere patriot. His only desire was to accomplish the unification of Italy. He borrowed some money from his friends, bought a bag of seeds for cultivation, and left for Caprera Island to spend his rest of life there as a simple farmer. Hence, the third stage reached its culmination by ending the reactionary rule.
Fourth Stage Of Unification and Role of Victor Emmanuel
By then, only Rome and Venetia had remained outside united Italy. Venetia was under the rule of Austria. Pope was occupying Rome.
Annexation of Venetia: - Prussia became the cause of unification of Italy with the remaining of her areas that had left out. A war began between Austria and Prussia in 1866. In the war, Victor Emmanuel II participated with Prussia. Italy was defeated in this war but Prussia defeated Austria. The treaty of Prague was signed between Prussia and Austria in 1866. According to the terms of the treaty, defeated Austria transferred Venetia to Italy. Fisher, the historian, comments, " The prize of Venetia was won on the field of Sadowa by the formidable Prussia army." Now, only Rome had remained outside Italy.
Fifth Stage:
Annexation Of Rome: - The French army was protecting the territories of Rome. Italy did not find it conducive to pick a fight with France. However, Italy was quite fortunate to get a chance. In 1870, a war began between France and Prussia, which is famous as the Franco-Prussian war. Napoleon III was compelled by circumstances to call back the French army from Rome in order to face Prussian assault. Victor Emmanuel exploited the opportunity and attacked Rome. He soon occupied Rome. After a plebiscite, it was merged with the rest of Italy. Rome was made the capital of Italy in place of Turin. Pope was permitted to retain his area in Rome. In 1871, by the law of Papal Guarantee, the limits of his rights were specified. Thus, another major problem, that of a clash between the jurisdictions of the Pope and the king, was solved. It was a great problem because the Roman Catholics regarded Rome as their spiritual capital and Pope, its ruler. Hence, the 1871 Act solved that legal problem also.
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